Difference between revisions of "Braereth"

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[[Category: Braereth]]
[[Category: Languages]]
[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category: A posteriori]]
[[Category: Indo-European]]
[[Category: Romance]]
[[Category: Braereth]]{{Braereth/nav}}
Braereth is a collection of four fairly mutually intelligible dialects. Classical Braereth was a Western Romance language spoken in pockets of mountainous areas from the Alps to the Carpathians until the mid-sixteenth century.
Braereth is a collection of four fairly mutually intelligible dialects. Classical Braereth was a Western Romance language spoken in pockets of mountainous areas from the Alps to the Carpathians until the mid-sixteenth century.


For the purposes of this text, we will mainly use the classical spelling of the language (italicized where applicable, e.g. ''[[ginte#Braereth|ginte]]'' ‘people’); single brackets around words are indicative of the [[Eomentesa (dialect)|Eomentesa]] spelling reform (e.g. ⟨[[jint#Eomentesa|jint]]⟩ ‘people’). Double-brackets indicate [[Tenibvreth (dialect)|Tenibvreth]] “slang” spellings (e.g. ⟪[[gint’#Tenibreth|gint’]]⟫ ‘people’. Finally, words rendered in the [[Merineth (dialect)|Merineth dialect]] are enclosed in curved angle brackets (e.g. ⧼[[zints#Merineth|zints]]⧽ ‘people’), which is not a traditional linguistic distinction, but is indicative of the tails of merfolk. Specific differences in the phonologies of the modern dialects are described under '''[[#Phonology|Phonology]]'''.
For the purposes of this text, we will mainly use the classical spelling of the language (italicized where applicable, e.g. ''[[ginte#Braereth|ginte]]'' ‘people’); single brackets around words are indicative of the [[Eomentesa (dialect)|Eomentesa]] spelling reform (e.g. ⟨[[jint#Eomentesa|jint]]⟩ ‘people’). Double-brackets indicate [[Tenibvreth (dialect)|Tenibvreth]] “slang” spellings (e.g. ⟪[[gint’#Tenibreth|gint’]]⟫ ‘people’. Finally, words rendered in the [[Merineth (dialect)|Merineth dialect]] are enclosed in curved angle brackets (e.g. ⧼[[zints#Merineth|zints]]⧽ ‘people’), which is not a traditional linguistic distinction, but is indicative of the tails of the merfolk who speak it. Specific differences in the phonologies of the modern dialects are described under '''[[#Phonology|Phonology]]'''.
{{Braereth/nav}}


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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===Archetypal Braereth===
===Archetypal Braereth===
 
This is the variety of Braereth which is taught, but only really spoken by newscasters, politicians, actors, and other public figures, much like the American [[wiki: Mid-Atlantic accent|Transatlantic accent]] which filled a similar role before its decline in the latter half of the twentieth century.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|width=75| '''Consonants'''
|width=75| '''Consonants'''
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''Main article: [[Tenibvreth (dialect)]]''
''Main article: [[Tenibvreth (dialect)]]''


The [[Tenibvreth (dialect)|Tenibvreth dialect]] is marked by a weakening and near-total deletion of final unstressed vowels, a strengthened palatal series, and diverse realizations of the lateral series. A larger amount of the vocabulary is borrowed from Gothic, other Germanic influences, and Slavic languages. For the most part, Tenibvreth is written as standard Braereth, though many words are slightly abbreviated or modified to reflect current pronunciation: mainly omitting the final vowel. When the final vowel is ⟨e⟩ or when the final consonant is palatalized, an apostrophe (⟨’⟩) is used. The exception to this is infinitives of verbs, which always eliminate the final ⟨e⟩ leaving a palatalized ⟨r⟩, but an apostrophe is not used.
The [[Tenibvreth (dialect)|Tenibvreth dialect]] is marked by a weakening and near-total deletion of final unstressed vowels, a strengthened palatal series, and diverse realizations of the laterals. A larger amount of the vocabulary is borrowed from Gothic, other Germanic influences, and Slavic languages. For the most part, Tenibvreth is written as standard Braereth, though many words are slightly abbreviated or modified to reflect current pronunciation: mainly omitting the final vowel. When the final vowel is ⟨e⟩ or when the final consonant is palatalized, an apostrophe (⟨’⟩) is used. The exception to this is infinitives of verbs, which always eliminate the final ⟨e⟩ leaving a palatalized ⟨r⟩, but an apostrophe is not used.


===Eomentesa Dialect===
===Eomentesa Dialect===
''Main article: [[Eomentesa (dialect)]]''
''Main article: [[Eomentesa (dialect)]]''


The [[Eomentesa (dialect)|Eomentesa dialect]] is notable for its lowered (“true”) mid vowels and almost complete loss of the palatal series to unpacking. It has a small number of borrowings from Celtic sources not shared with the other dialects. Some speakers still use the Classical orthography, but a recent spelling reform has been adopted by most speakers of the Eomentesa dialect, and many words bear little resemblance to their Braereth forebears (e.g. '''''[[tzeiru#Braereth|tzeiru]]''''' ‘zero’ becomes Eomentesa '''''[[sero#Eomentesa|sero]]'''''.
The [[Eomentesa (dialect)|Eomentesa dialect]] is notable for its lowered (“true”) mid vowels and almost complete loss of the palatal series to unpacking. It has a small number of borrowings from Celtic sources not shared with the other dialects. Some speakers still use the Classical orthography, but a recent spelling reform has been adopted by most speakers of the Eomentesa dialect, and many words bear little resemblance to their Braereth forebears (e.g. '''''[[tzeiru#Braereth|tzeiru]]''''' ‘zero’ becomes Eomentesa '''''[[sero#Eomentesa|sero]]''''').


===Merineth Dialect===
===Merineth Dialect===
''Main article: [[Merineth (dialect)]]''
''Main article: [[Merineth (dialect)]]''


The [[Merineth (dialect)|Merineth dialect]] is the furthest removed of the dialects from Classical Braereth. It has no palatal sounds whatsoever, and contains a number of liquids that appear seemingly spontaneously around certain clusters. Consonant clusters are all but eliminated, and diphthongs are broken up by an insertive ⟨l⟩ or ⟨r⟩. There is a merging of voiced and unvoiced consonants, as well as fortition of certain fricatives into stops. The vowels ⟨e⟩and ⟨o⟩ do not exist in Merineth, and are usually raised to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩, respectively, or sometimes lowered to ⟨a⟩. The Merineth do not have a formal written language, and usually use the Classical spelling, though some have adopted the [[Eomentesa (dialect)#Spelling Reform|Eomentesa spelling reform]], as it is a little closer than Classican Braereth to how Merineth is actually pronounced, though there are still vast differences.
The [[Merineth (dialect)|Merineth dialect]] is the furthest removed of the dialects from Classical Braereth. It has no palatal sounds whatsoever, and contains a number of liquids that appear seemingly spontaneously around certain clusters. Consonant clusters are all but eliminated, and diphthongs are broken up by an insertive ⟨l⟩ or ⟨r⟩. There is a merging of voiced and unvoiced consonants, as well as fortition of certain fricatives into stops. The vowels ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ do not exist in Merineth, and are usually raised to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩, respectively, or sometimes lowered to ⟨a⟩. The Merineth do not have a formal written language, and usually use the Classical spelling, though some have adopted the [[Eomentesa (dialect)#Spelling Reform|Eomentesa spelling reform]], as it is a little closer than Classican Braereth to how Merineth is actually pronounced, though there are still vast differences.


===Orthographic and Phonemic Mapping===
===Orthographic and Phonemic Mapping===
While all dialects of Braereth may be written in the classical orthography, in Tenibvreth final vowels are often elided, and certain folk spellings have become common where pronunciation has changed, e.g. ⟨floura⟩ for '''''[[flora#Braereth|flora]]''''', or substituting ⟨qv⟩ for ⟨qu⟩ ('''''[[ecquilju#Braereth|ecquilju]]''''' → ⟨ecqvil’⟩). When final vowels are dropped, final ⟨e⟩ often becomes ⟨’⟩ to indicate palatalization ('''''[[grande#Braereth|grande]]''''' → ⟨grand’⟩), and sometimes final ⟨tu⟩ will be changed to ⟨th⟩ ('''''[[tutu#Braereth|tutu]]''''' → ⟨tuth⟩).
While all dialects of Braereth may be written in the classical orthography, in Tenibvreth final vowels are often elided, and certain folk spellings have become common where pronunciation has changed, e.g. ⟪[[floura#Tenibvreth|floura]]⟫ for '''''[[flora#Braereth|flora]]''''', or substituting ⟪qv⟫ for ⟨qu⟩ ('''''[[ecquilju#Braereth|ecquilju]]''''' → ⟪[[ecqvil’#Tenibvreth|ecqvil’]]⟫). When final vowels are dropped, final ⟨e⟩ often becomes ⟪’⟫ to indicate palatalization ('''''[[grande#Braereth|grande]]''''' → ⟪[[grand’#Tenibvreth|grand’]]⟫), and sometimes final ⟨tu⟩ will be changed to ⟪th⟫ ('''''[[tutu#Braereth|tutu]]''''' → ⟪[[tuth#Tenibvreth|tuth]]⟫).
 
The [[Eomentesa (dialect)|Eomentesa dialect]] has a reformed spelling system which is described in detail on the [[Eomentesa (dialect)|Eomentesa]] page.
 
[[Merineth (dialect)|Merineth]] does not have a unique writing system, but there is a transcriptional orthography described on the [[Merineth (dialect)|Merineth]] page.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!width=50| Orth.
!width=50| Orth.
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|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| bv
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| bv
| /bv/
| /v/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨v⟩ in '''''v'''ery''.
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨v⟩ in '''''v'''ery''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[ribveu#Braereth|ribveu]]'''''<br />‘level’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[ribveu#Braereth|ribveu]]'''''<br />‘level’
| /riˈbveu̯/
| /riˈveu̯/
| [ri.bβeu̯]
| [ri.bβeu̯]
| ⟪'''''[[ribveu#Braereth|ribveu]]'''''⟫<br />[riˈveu̯]
| ⟪'''''[[ribveu#Braereth|ribveu]]'''''⟫<br />[riˈveu̯]
| ⟨'''''[[riveo#Eomentesa|riveo]]'''''⟩<br />[riˈve̞.o̞]
| ⟨'''''[[riveo#Eomentesa|riveo]]'''''⟩<br />[riˈve̞.o̞]
| ⧼'''''[[ribilu#Merineth|ribilu]]'''''⧽<br />[riˈbi.lu]
| ⧼'''''[[ribilu#Merineth|ribilu]]'''''⧽<br />[riˈbi.lu]
|style="text-align: left;"| Only occurs word-internally.
|style="text-align: left;"| Only occurs word-internally. The affricate is sometimes maintained in the standardized language as /bv/.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| c
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| c
| /k/
| /k/
|style="text-align: left;"| as '''''c'''at''.
|style="text-align: left;"| as in '''''c'''at''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[couru#Braereth|couru]]'''''<br />‘heart’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[couru#Braereth|couru]]'''''<br />‘heart’
| /ˈku.ru/
| /ˈku.ru/
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| ⟨'''''[[ditxer#Eomentesa|ditxer]]'''''⟩<br />[diˈʧe̞r]
| ⟨'''''[[ditxer#Eomentesa|ditxer]]'''''⟩<br />[diˈʧe̞r]
| ⧼'''''[[titsil#Merineth|titsil]]'''''⧽<br />[tiˈʦil]
| ⧼'''''[[titsil#Merineth|titsil]]'''''⧽<br />[tiˈʦil]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/_{i,e'''
|style="text-align: left;"| when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| cj
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| cj
Line 318: Line 328:
| ⟪'''''[[dent’#Tenibvreth|dent’]]'''''⟫<br />[denʨ]
| ⟪'''''[[dent’#Tenibvreth|dent’]]'''''⟫<br />[denʨ]
| ⟨'''''[[dent#Eomentesa|dent]]'''''⟩<br />[de̞nt]
| ⟨'''''[[dent#Eomentesa|dent]]'''''⟩<br />[de̞nt]
| ⧼'''''[[tints#Merineth|tints]]'''''⧽<br />[tenʦ]
| ⧼'''''[[tints#Merineth|tints]]'''''⧽<br />[tinʦ]
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
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| ⟨'''''[[xaodo#Eomentesa|xaodo]]'''''⟩<br />[ʃau̯.ðo̞]
| ⟨'''''[[xaodo#Eomentesa|xaodo]]'''''⟩<br />[ʃau̯.ðo̞]
| ⧼'''''[[salutu#Merineth|salutu]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈsa.lu.tu]
| ⧼'''''[[salutu#Merineth|salutu]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈsa.lu.tu]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/S_S'''
|style="text-align: left;"| when between vowels or liquids (r or l).
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| dj
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| dj
Line 416: Line 426:
| ⟨'''''[[tradjer#Eomentesa|tradjer]]'''''⟩<br />[tɾaˈʤe̞r]
| ⟨'''''[[tradjer#Eomentesa|tradjer]]'''''⟩<br />[tɾaˈʤe̞r]
| ⧼'''''[[tradzil#Merineth|tradzil]]'''''⧽<br />[tɾaˈʣil]
| ⧼'''''[[tradzil#Merineth|tradzil]]'''''⧽<br />[tɾaˈʣil]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/_{i,e'''
|style="text-align: left;"| when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| gj
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| gj
Line 470: Line 480:
| ⟨'''''[[iecro#Eomentesa|iecro]]'''''⟩<br />[iˈe̞.kro̞]
| ⟨'''''[[iecro#Eomentesa|iecro]]'''''⟩<br />[iˈe̞.kro̞]
| ⧼'''''[[ilikru#Merineth|ilikru]]'''''⧽<br />[iˈlik.ɾu]
| ⧼'''''[[ilikru#Merineth|ilikru]]'''''⧽<br />[iˈlik.ɾu]
| [iˈe.kru]
|style="text-align: left;"| when before any vowel except ⟨u⟩.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/_V''' ('''!_/u/''')
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| iu
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| iu
| /iu̯/
| /iu̯/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨ee you⟩ in ''s'''see you'''''.
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨ee you⟩ in ''s'''ee you'''''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[fluviu#Braereth|fluviu]]'''''<br />‘river’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[fluviu#Braereth|fluviu]]'''''<br />‘river’
| /ˈflu.viw/
| /ˈflu.viw/
Line 498: Line 507:
| /ʎ/
| /ʎ/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨gl⟩ in Italian ''da'''gl'''i''.
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨gl⟩ in Italian ''da'''gl'''i''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[alju#Braereth|alju]]'''''<br />‘other’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[meiljour#Braereth|meiljour]]'''''<br />‘better’
| /ˈa.ʎis/
| /miːˈʎur/
| [ˈa.ʎis]
| [mei̯ˈʎou̯r]
| [ˈa.ɮis]
| [miˈɮuʀ]
| ⟨'''''[[alio#Eomentesa|alio]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈa.li.o̞]
| ⟨'''''[[melior#Eomentesa|melior]]'''''⟩<br />[me̞ˈli.o̞r]
| ⧼'''''[[aliu#Merineth|aliu]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈa.li.u]
| ⧼'''''[[míliúr#Merineth|míliúr]]'''''⧽<br />[miːˈli.uːr]
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
Line 528: Line 537:
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| nc
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| nc
| /ŋk/
| /ŋk/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨nk⟩ in ''ta'''nk'''''.
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨nk⟩ in ''ta'''nk'''''.
Line 538: Line 547:
| ⧼'''''[[zinkuru#Merineth|zinkuru]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈzin.ku.ɾu]
| ⧼'''''[[zinkuru#Merineth|zinkuru]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈzin.ku.ɾu]
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|-
| /nʧ/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨nch⟩ in ''i'''nch'''''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[quince#Braereth|quince]]'''''<br />‘fifteen’
| /ˈkwin.ʧe/
| [ˈkʷiɲ.cçe]
| ⟪'''''[[qvinc’#Tenibvreth|qvinc’]]'''''⟫<br />[ˈkʋiɲʨ]
| ⟨'''''[[quintx#Eomentesa|quintx]]'''''⟩<br />[kuˈin.ʧe]
| ⧼'''''[[kulints#Merineth|kulints]]'''''⧽<br />[kuˈlinʦ]
|style="text-align: left;"| when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| ng
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| ng
Line 557: Line 576:
| ⟪'''''[[punger#Tenibvreth|punger]]'''''⟫<br />[puŋ.ɡʑeʐ]
| ⟪'''''[[punger#Tenibvreth|punger]]'''''⟫<br />[puŋ.ɡʑeʐ]
| ⟨'''''[[pundjer#Eomentesa|pundjer]]'''''⟩<br />[punˈʤe̞r]
| ⟨'''''[[pundjer#Eomentesa|pundjer]]'''''⟩<br />[punˈʤe̞r]
| ⧼'''''[[pundzil#Merineth|pundzil]]'''''⧽<br />[pynˈʣil]
| ⧼'''''[[pundzil#Merineth|pundzil]]'''''⧽<br />[punˈʣil]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/_{i,e'''
|style="text-align: left;"| when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| ngj
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| ngj
Line 594: Line 613:
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| ou
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| ou
| /ou̯/
| /u/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨oo⟩ in ''s'''oo'''n''.
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨oo⟩ in ''s'''oo'''n''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[ouvu#Braereth|ouvu]]'''''<br />‘egg’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[ouvu#Braereth|ouvu]]'''''<br />‘egg’
| /ˈu.vu/
| /ˈu.vu/
| [ˈu.vu]
| [ˈou̯.vu]
| ⟪'''''[[ouv#Tenibvreth|ouv]]'''''⟫<br />[uv]
| ⟪'''''[[ouv#Tenibvreth|ouv]]'''''⟫<br />[uv]
| ⟨'''''[[ovo#Eomentesa|ovo]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈo̞.vo̞]
| ⟨'''''[[ovo#Eomentesa|ovo]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈo̞.vo̞]
Line 623: Line 642:
| ⟪'''''[[aqhma#Braereth|aqhma]]'''''⟫<br />[ˈaχ.mə]
| ⟪'''''[[aqhma#Braereth|aqhma]]'''''⟫<br />[ˈaχ.mə]
| ⟨'''''[[ahma#Eomentesa|ahma]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈaç.ma]
| ⟨'''''[[ahma#Eomentesa|ahma]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈaç.ma]
| ⧼'''''[[aqhma#Braereth|aqhma]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈaʀ.ma]
| ⧼'''''[[aqma#Braereth|aqma]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈaʀ.ma]
|style="text-align: left;"| Only in borrowings.
|style="text-align: left;"| Only in borrowings.
|-
|-
Line 631: Line 650:
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[quei#Braereth|quei]]'''''<br />‘what’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[quei#Braereth|quei]]'''''<br />‘what’
| /kwiː/
| /kwiː/
| [kwei̯]
| [kʷei̯]
| ⟪'''''[[qvei#Tenibvreth|qvei]]'''''⟫<br />[kʋi]
| ⟪'''''[[qvei#Tenibvreth|qvei]]'''''⟫<br />[kʋi]
| ⟨'''''[[que#Eomentesa|que]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈku.e̞]
| ⟨'''''[[que#Eomentesa|que]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈku.e̞]
Line 656: Line 675:
| ⟪'''''[[terja#Braereth|terja]]'''''⟫<br />[ˈte.ʐə]
| ⟪'''''[[terja#Braereth|terja]]'''''⟫<br />[ˈte.ʐə]
| ⟨'''''[[teria#Eomentesa|teria]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈte̞.ri.a]
| ⟨'''''[[teria#Eomentesa|teria]]'''''⟩<br />[ˈte̞.ri.a]
| ⧼'''''[[teria#Merineth|teria]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈte.ri.a]
| ⧼'''''[[tiria#Merineth|tiria]]'''''⧽<br />[ˈti.ri.a]
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| s
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;" rowspan=2| s
| /s/
| /s/
|style="text-align: left;"| as in '''''s'''see''.
|style="text-align: left;"| as in '''''s'''ee''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[secjare#Braereth|secjare]]'''''<br />‘to cut’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[secjare#Braereth|secjare]]'''''<br />‘to cut’
| /seˈʧa.re/
| /seˈʧa.re/
Line 678: Line 697:
| ⟨'''''[[espoza#Eomentesa|espoza]]'''''⟩<br />[e̞ˈspu.za]
| ⟨'''''[[espoza#Eomentesa|espoza]]'''''⟩<br />[e̞ˈspu.za]
| ⧼'''''[[ípuza#Merineth|ípuza]]'''''⧽<br />[iːˈpu.za]
| ⧼'''''[[ípuza#Merineth|ípuza]]'''''⧽<br />[iːˈpu.za]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/V_V'''
|style="text-align: left;"| when between vowels or liquids.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| sj
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| sj
Line 733: Line 752:
| ⟨'''''[[sintx#Eomentesa|sintx]]'''''⟩<br />[sinʧ]
| ⟨'''''[[sintx#Eomentesa|sintx]]'''''⟩<br />[sinʧ]
| ⧼'''''[[sints#Merineth|sints]]'''''⧽<br />[sinʦ]
| ⧼'''''[[sints#Merineth|sints]]'''''⧽<br />[sinʦ]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/#_'''
|style="text-align: left;"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
| /ʣ/
| /ʣ/
Line 743: Line 762:
| ⟨'''''[[pedzito#Eomentesa|pedzito]]'''''⟩<br />[pe̞ˈʣi.to̞]
| ⟨'''''[[pedzito#Eomentesa|pedzito]]'''''⟩<br />[pe̞ˈʣi.to̞]
| ⧼'''''[[pidzitu#Merineth|pidzitu]]'''''⧽<br />[piˈʣi.tu]
| ⧼'''''[[pidzitu#Merineth|pidzitu]]'''''⧽<br />[piˈʣi.tu]
|style="text-align: left;"| '''/S_S''' ('''!/n/_''')
|style="text-align: left;"| when between vowels or liquids.
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| u
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| u
Line 757: Line 776:
|-
|-
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| ui
| style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 18pt; vertical-align: text-top;"| ui
| /uj/
| /ui̯/
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨uy⟩ in Spanish ''m'''uy'''''.
|style="text-align: left;"| like ⟨uy⟩ in Spanish ''m'''uy'''''.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[luictjare#Braereth|luictjare]]'''''<br />‘to fight’
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[luictjare#Braereth|luictjare]]'''''<br />‘to fight’
Line 811: Line 830:
|style="text-align: left;"| Only in borrowings.
|style="text-align: left;"| Only in borrowings.
|}
|}
====Orthographic Peculiarities====
* The diphthongs ⟨au⟩ and ⟨eu⟩ are written as ⟨aou⟩ and ⟨eou⟩, respectively, when they occur at the end of a monosyllabic word; however, this does not include function words, which leads to some interesting homophones:
** ⟨'''''[[au#Braereth|au]]'''''⟩ ‘to the’ ~ ⟨'''''[[abvere#Braereth|aou]]'''''⟩ ‘I have’ (first person singular present indicative of ''[[abvere#Braereth|abvere]]'')
** ⟨'''''[[meu#Braereth|meu]]'''''⟩ ‘my’ ~ ⟨'''''[[meou#Braereth|meou]]'''''⟩ ‘honey’
** ⟨'''''[[seu#Braereth|seu]]'''''⟩ ‘his/her’ ~ ⟨'''''[[estere#Braereth|seou]]'''''⟩ ‘I am’ (first person singular present indicative of ''[[estere#Braereth|estere]]'')


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
 
Pronouns are much the same as in English, but there is an additional distinction between dative and accusative prounouns (i.e. indirect and direct objects) which is also found in other Romance languages. There are some subtleties around how to distinguish one from the other, but the simplest, most fundamental rule is:
# Direct object pronouns usually precede the verb that modifies them, and
# Indirect object pronouns are always used after a preposition.
{{Braereth/pronouns}}
{{Braereth/pronouns}}


Line 838: Line 865:
| '''[[les#Braereth|les]]'''<br />''[[les#Braereth|les]] [[muljera#Braereth|muljeres]]''<br />‘the women’
| '''[[les#Braereth|les]]'''<br />''[[les#Braereth|les]] [[muljera#Braereth|muljeres]]''<br />‘the women’
|}
|}
When the masculine singular article follows the prepositions [[a#Braereth|a]] and [[de#Braereth|de]], they fuse into a single word, [[au#Braereth|au]] and [[deu#Braereth|deu]], respectively. (Cf. Spanish ''al'', French ''du'', or Italian ''dal''.)


====The Indefinite Article====
====The Indefinite Article====
Line 857: Line 886:
| '''[[unes#Braereth|unes]]'''<br />''[[unes#Braereth|unes]] [[muljera#Braereth|muljeres]]''<br />‘some women’
| '''[[unes#Braereth|unes]]'''<br />''[[unes#Braereth|unes]] [[muljera#Braereth|muljeres]]''<br />‘some women’
|}
|}
====Possessives====
The possessive adjectives from the personal pronouns are declined as [[#Adjectives|adjectives (below)]], but the singular pronouns have a slightly irregular masculine singular form. [[meu#Braereth|Meu]] (‘my’) declines thus:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
!width=100px| &nbsp;
!width=100px| Singular
!width=100px| Plural
|-
! Masculine
| [[meu#Braereth|me-'''u''']]
| [[meu#Braereth|me-'''vis''']]
|-
! Feminine
| [[meu#Braereth|me-'''va''']]
| [[meu#Braereth|me-'''ves''']]
|}
[[teu#Braereth|Teu]] (‘your’) and [[seu#Braereth|seu]] (‘his/her’) decline similarly.


==Numerals==
==Numerals==
The “teen” numbers (11-19) are highly irregular. In Classical Braereth, these all ended with '''‑dice''', which in the modern languages has been contracted to '''‑ce'''.
The “teen” numbers (11-19) are highly irregular. In Classical Braereth, these all ended with '''‑dice''', which in the modern languages has been contracted to '''‑ce'''.


While ⟨'''''[[vinctjeth-uictjou#Braereth|vinctjeth-uictjou]]'''''⟩ is the literary standard, none of the dialects actually uses this form: Classical Braereth used an older form ⟨'''''[[vinctje#Braereth|vinctje]]-[[eth#Braereth|eth]]-[[uictjou#Braereth|uictjou]]'''''⟩ where the conjunction had not been assimilated into the first element; [[Tenibvreth]] does not retain the '''–th''' of the conjunction because '''''[[uictjou#Braereth|uictjou]]''''' begins with a consonant sound (it is sometimes written as ⟨'''''[[vinctje#Braereth|vinctje]]-[[victjou#Tenibvreth|victjou]]'''⟩); Eomentesa’s reform orthography spells it as ⟨'''''[[vintx#Eomentesa|vintx]]-[[eth#Braereth|eth]]-[[útxo#Eomentesa|útxo]]'''''⟩.
While '''''[[vinctjeth-uictjou#Braereth|vinctjeth-uictjou]]''''' is the literary standard, none of the dialects actually uses this form: Classical Braereth used an older form '''''[[vinctje#Braereth|vinctje]]-[[eth#Braereth|eth]]-[[uictjou#Braereth|uictjou]]''''' where the conjunction had not been assimilated into the first element; [[Tenibvreth (dialect)|Tenibvreth]] does not retain the '''–th''' of the conjunction because '''''[[uictjou#Braereth|uictjou]]''''' begins with a consonant sound (it is sometimes written as ⟪'''''[[vinctje#Braereth|vinctje]]-[[victjou#Tenibvreth|victjou]]'''''⟫); Eomentesa’s reform orthography spells it as ⟨'''''[[vintx#Eomentesa|vintx]]-[[eth#Braereth|eth]]-[[útxo#Eomentesa|útxo]]'''''⟩.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 968: Line 1,017:
Like all Romance languages, nouns have grammatical gender; every noun has a value of either masculine or feminine.  
Like all Romance languages, nouns have grammatical gender; every noun has a value of either masculine or feminine.  


Most masculine nouns end in ⟨-u⟩. Most feminine nouns end in ⟨-a⟩. Some nouns end in ⟨-e⟩, and may be either masculine or feminine. (Nouns that end in ⟨-e⟩ come from Latin terms ending in ⟨-is⟩.)
Most masculine nouns end in '''-u'''. Most feminine nouns end in '''-a'''. Some nouns end in '''-e''', and may be either masculine or feminine. (Nouns and adjectives that end in '''-e''' come from Latin terms ending in '''-is'''.)


The plurals of nouns are very regular: Masculine noun plurals always end in ⟨-is⟩, while feminine plurals end in ⟨-es⟩.
The plurals of nouns are very regular: Masculine noun plurals always end in '''-is''', while feminine plurals end in '''-es'''.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
Line 987: Line 1,036:
|}
|}


Masculine nouns ending in a diphthong (that is, ⟨au⟩, ⟨aou⟩, ⟨eu⟩, or ⟨eu⟩) have a slightly odd shift, because the ⟨u⟩ of those vowel clusters actually comes from an earlier ⟨l⟩, which remains in the plural forms. When this occurs in adjectives, the feminine singular form also has an ⟨l⟩.
Masculine nouns ending in a diphthong (that is, ⟨au⟩, ⟨aou⟩, ⟨eu⟩, or ⟨eu⟩) have a slightly odd shift, because the '''u''' of those vowel clusters actually comes from an earlier '''l''', which remains in the plural forms. When this occurs in adjectives, the feminine singular form also has an '''l'''.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
Line 998: Line 1,047:
| [[meou#Braereth|m-'''eou''']], ‘honey’<br />[[gindrau#Braereth|gindr-'''au''']], ‘general’
| [[meou#Braereth|m-'''eou''']], ‘honey’<br />[[gindrau#Braereth|gindr-'''au''']], ‘general’
| [[meou#Braereth|m-'''elis''']], ‘honeys’<br />[[gindrau#Braereth|gindr-'''alis''']], ‘generals’
| [[meou#Braereth|m-'''elis''']], ‘honeys’<br />[[gindrau#Braereth|gindr-'''alis''']], ‘generals’
|}
Feminine nouns ending in '''''[[-tja#Braereth|-tja]]''''' (from Latin ''-tiō'') have an irregular plural which restores the '''n''' in the ending of the plural form.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
!width=100px| &nbsp;
!width=120px| Singular
!width=150px| Plural
|-
! Feminine
| [[actja#Braereth|ac-'''tja''']], ‘action’<br />[[iunctja#Braereth|iunc-'''tja''']], ‘junction’
| [[actja#Braereth|ac-'''tj''on''es''']], ‘actions’<br />[[iunctja#Braereth|iunc-'''tj''on''es''']], ‘junctions’
|}
|}


Line 1,033: Line 1,095:
| [[umbrau#Braereth|umbra-'''la''']]
| [[umbrau#Braereth|umbra-'''la''']]
| [[umbrau#Braereth|umbra-'''les''']]
| [[umbrau#Braereth|umbra-'''les''']]
|}
Masculine singular adjectives ending in ⟨-cu⟩ have a feminine form ending with ⟨-cja⟩, as seen here with '''''[[blancu#Braereth|blancu]]''''' ‘white’.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
!width=100px| &nbsp;
!width=100px| Singular
!width=100px| Plural
|-
! Masculine
| [[blancu#Braereth|blan-'''cu''']]
| [[blancu#Braereth|blan-'''cis''']]
|-
! Feminine
| [[blancu#Braereth|blan-'''cja''']]
| [[blancu#Braereth|blan-'''ces''']]
|}
|}


Line 1,038: Line 1,117:


For example, '''''[[facere#Braereth|facere]]''''' ‘to do’ has the past participle '''''[[faectje#Braereth|faectje]]''''' ‘done’, used in verb phrases such as ''L’aou faectj'''e''''', ‘I have done it’, but ''Mis deveris soun faectj'''is''''', ‘My chores are done’, (with a masculine plural ending). Almost without exception, the uninflected form ends in '''–e''', while the inflected forms take the standard masculine, feminine, singular, and plural endings '''–u''', '''–a''', '''–is''', and '''–es'''.
For example, '''''[[facere#Braereth|facere]]''''' ‘to do’ has the past participle '''''[[faectje#Braereth|faectje]]''''' ‘done’, used in verb phrases such as ''L’aou faectj'''e''''', ‘I have done it’, but ''Mis deveris soun faectj'''is''''', ‘My chores are done’, (with a masculine plural ending). Almost without exception, the uninflected form ends in '''–e''', while the inflected forms take the standard masculine, feminine, singular, and plural endings '''–u''', '''–a''', '''–is''', and '''–es'''.
==Verbs==
Braereth verbs can be divided into four basic categories, similar to the verbs of other Romance languages. Most verb infinitives end in '''-are''', '''-ere''', or '''-ire''', and these make up the basis of the first three classes of regular verbs. The fourth category is kind of a junk-drawer of verbs that end in '''-ure''' and irregular verbs from the first three categories.
===Regular Verbs===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
! &nbsp;
!width=100px| -are Verbs
!width=100px| -ere Verbs
!width=100px| -ire Verbs
!width=100px| -ure Verbs
|-
! Infinitive:
| '''[[estare#Braereth|est-are]]'''<br /> ‘to stand’
| '''[[iacere#Braereth|iac-ere]]'''<br /> ‘to put’
| '''[[dourmire#Braereth|dourm-ire]]'''<br /> ‘to sleep’
| '''[[flure#Braereth|fl-ure]]'''<br /> ‘to flow’
|-
! eou
| est-'''au'''
| iac-'''eu'''
| dourm-'''iu'''
| fl-'''ui'''
|-
! tu
| est-'''aes'''
| iac-'''eis'''
| dourm-'''is'''
| fl-'''uis'''
|-
! ilj(u/a)
| est-'''ae'''
| iac-'''ei'''
| dourm-'''ith'''
| fl-'''uith'''
|-
! nous
| est-'''amu'''
| iac-'''emu'''
| dourm-'''imu'''
| fl-'''umu'''
|-
! vous
| est-'''ate'''
| iac-'''ete'''
| dourm-'''ite'''
| fl-'''ute'''
|-
! ilj(i/e)s
| est-'''aen'''
| iac-'''ein'''
| dourm-'''in'''
| fl-'''uin'''
|-
! Present Participle:
| est-'''ante'''
| iac-'''ente'''
| dourm-'''inte'''
| fl-'''unte'''
|-
! Past Participle:
| est-'''ate'''
| iac-'''ete'''
| dourm-'''ite'''
| fl-'''ute'''
|}
===Irregular Verbs===
There are many, but here are a few of the most useful:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
! &nbsp;
!width=100px| [[estere#Braereth|estere]]
!width=100px| [[abvere#Braereth|abvere]]
!width=100px| [[ire#Braereth|ire]]
!width=100px| [[dare#Braereth|dare]]*
!width=100px| [[facere#Braereth|facere]]
|-
!&nbsp;
| ‘to be’
| ‘to have’
| ‘to go’
| ‘to give’
| ‘to do’
|-
! eou
| '''seou'''
| '''aou'''
| '''vaou'''
| d-'''aou'''
| f-'''eou'''
|-
! tu
| '''eis'''
| '''aes'''
| '''vaes'''
| d-'''aes'''
| f-'''eis'''
|-
! ilj(u/a)
| '''ei'''(th)
| '''ae'''
| '''vae'''
| d-'''ae'''
| f-'''ei'''(th)
|-
! nous
| '''seimu'''
| abv-'''emu'''
| i-'''mu'''
| d-'''amu'''
| fac-'''emu'''
|-
! vous
| '''seite'''
| abv-'''ete'''
| i-'''te'''
| d-'''ate'''
| f-'''aectje'''
|-
! ilj(i/e)s
| '''soun'''
| '''aun'''
| '''vaun'''
| d-'''aen'''
| f-'''ein'''
|-
! Present Participle:
| est-'''ente'''
| '''ante'''
| '''inte'''
| d-'''ante'''
| fac-'''ente'''
|-
! Past Participle:
| est-'''e'''
| '''eute'''
| '''ite'''
| d-'''ate'''
| f-'''aectje'''
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki> ''[[dare#Braereth|Dare]]'' isn't really irregular, it's just a single-letter stem, hence the first person singular present indicative has -aou instead of -au.
===A Note about Participles===
When used as a verb (e.g. in compound verb tenses), the present and past participle forms end with '''-e''' (e.g. ''Estae '''dourmint-e''','' ‘He is sleeping.’) But declines fully when used as an adjective: ''Eith un viru '''dourmint-u''','' ‘He is a sleeping man.’

Latest revision as of 07:09, 6 January 2023

Braereth Main Page
● Tenibvreth Dialect
● Eomentesa Dialect
● Merineth Dialect 		Braereth Lexicon
(arranged alphabetically)
● Braereth Word Hoard
● Braereth Phrasebook 		Braereth Categories
● Braereth extra-grammatical categories 		External
● A Braereth Grammar

Braereth is a collection of four fairly mutually intelligible dialects. Classical Braereth was a Western Romance language spoken in pockets of mountainous areas from the Alps to the Carpathians until the mid-sixteenth century.

For the purposes of this text, we will mainly use the classical spelling of the language (italicized where applicable, e.g. ginte ‘people’); single brackets around words are indicative of the Eomentesa spelling reform (e.g. ⟨jint⟩ ‘people’). Double-brackets indicate Tenibvreth “slang” spellings (e.g. ⟪gint’⟫ ‘people’. Finally, words rendered in the Merineth dialect are enclosed in curved angle brackets (e.g. ⧼zints⧽ ‘people’), which is not a traditional linguistic distinction, but is indicative of the tails of the merfolk who speak it. Specific differences in the phonologies of the modern dialects are described under Phonology.

Phonology

There are three major dialects of modern Braereth as well as an “archetypal” form which is official, but no one actually speaks. The archetypal form is based on Classical Braereth, which has a reconstructed phonology that differs slightly from the archetype particularly in the realization of the palatals and the lack of certain hypercorrections.

Archetypal Braereth

This is the variety of Braereth which is taught, but only really spoken by newscasters, politicians, actors, and other public figures, much like the American Transatlantic accent which filled a similar role before its decline in the latter half of the twentieth century.

Consonants Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar   Vowels Front Back
Plosive p · b t · d   k · ɡ High i u
Affricate · b͡v   ʦ · ʣ ʧ · ʤ   Mid e̞ o̞
Fricative f · v θ · [ð] s · [(z)] ʃ · (ʒ) (x) · Low ä
Nasal m n ɲ [ŋ] Diphthongs To Front To Back
Lateral   l ʎ   High ui̯ iu̯
Trill     r [ɾ] r̝   Mid ei̯ eu̯
Approximant w     j   Low ai̯ au̯

* Characters in square brackets are allophones; they are not phonemic.
* Characters in parentheses only occur in borrowings.

Classical Braereth (Reconstructed)

Consonants Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar   Vowels Front Back
Plosive p · b t · d cç · ɟʝ k · ɡ High i u
Affricate · b͡β   ʦ · ʣ ʨ · ʥ   Mid e̞ o̞
Fricative ɸ · β θ · [ð] s · [(z)] ɕ · (ʑ) (x~h) · Low a
Nasal m n ɲ [ŋ] Diphthongs To Front To Back
Lateral   l ʎ   High ui̯ iu̯ , ou̯
Trill     r [ɾ] r̝   Mid ei̯ eu̯
Approximant w, ʋ     j   Low ae̯ au̯

Tenibvreth Dialect

Main article: Tenibvreth (dialect)

The Tenibvreth dialect is marked by a weakening and near-total deletion of final unstressed vowels, a strengthened palatal series, and diverse realizations of the laterals. A larger amount of the vocabulary is borrowed from Gothic, other Germanic influences, and Slavic languages. For the most part, Tenibvreth is written as standard Braereth, though many words are slightly abbreviated or modified to reflect current pronunciation: mainly omitting the final vowel. When the final vowel is ⟨e⟩ or when the final consonant is palatalized, an apostrophe (⟨’⟩) is used. The exception to this is infinitives of verbs, which always eliminate the final ⟨e⟩ leaving a palatalized ⟨r⟩, but an apostrophe is not used.

Eomentesa Dialect

Main article: Eomentesa (dialect)

The Eomentesa dialect is notable for its lowered (“true”) mid vowels and almost complete loss of the palatal series to unpacking. It has a small number of borrowings from Celtic sources not shared with the other dialects. Some speakers still use the Classical orthography, but a recent spelling reform has been adopted by most speakers of the Eomentesa dialect, and many words bear little resemblance to their Braereth forebears (e.g. tzeiru ‘zero’ becomes Eomentesa sero).

Merineth Dialect

Main article: Merineth (dialect)

The Merineth dialect is the furthest removed of the dialects from Classical Braereth. It has no palatal sounds whatsoever, and contains a number of liquids that appear seemingly spontaneously around certain clusters. Consonant clusters are all but eliminated, and diphthongs are broken up by an insertive ⟨l⟩ or ⟨r⟩. There is a merging of voiced and unvoiced consonants, as well as fortition of certain fricatives into stops. The vowels ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ do not exist in Merineth, and are usually raised to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩, respectively, or sometimes lowered to ⟨a⟩. The Merineth do not have a formal written language, and usually use the Classical spelling, though some have adopted the Eomentesa spelling reform, as it is a little closer than Classican Braereth to how Merineth is actually pronounced, though there are still vast differences.

Orthographic and Phonemic Mapping

While all dialects of Braereth may be written in the classical orthography, in Tenibvreth final vowels are often elided, and certain folk spellings have become common where pronunciation has changed, e.g. ⟪floura⟫ for flora, or substituting ⟪qv⟫ for ⟨qu⟩ (ecquilju → ⟪ecqvil’⟫). When final vowels are dropped, final ⟨e⟩ often becomes ⟪’⟫ to indicate palatalization (grande → ⟪grand’⟫), and sometimes final ⟨tu⟩ will be changed to ⟪th⟫ (tutu → ⟪tuth⟫).

The Eomentesa dialect has a reformed spelling system which is described in detail on the Eomentesa page.

Merineth does not have a unique writing system, but there is a transcriptional orthography described on the Merineth page.

Orth. Phn. Description Example Official Classical Tenibvreth Eomentesa Merineth Environment/Notes
a /a/ as in father. ath
‘to’ 		/aθ/ [aθ] ⟪ath⟫
[aθ] 		⟨ath⟩
[aθ] 		⧼at’⧽
[at’] 		 
ae /ai̯/ like ⟨i⟩ in side. laectje
‘milk’ 		/ˈlai̯k.ʧe/ [ˈlae̯c.ʨe] ⟪laect’⟫
[lai̯kɕ] 		⟨létx⟩
[le̞ːʧ] 		⧼larits⧽
[laˈrits] 		In Merineth, /l/ is inserted between the vowels of earlier diphthongs. If /l/ is already present in an adjacent syllable, /r/ is inserted instead. If both /l/ and /r/ are present, things get weird.
aou /au̯/ like ⟨ow⟩ in how. saou
‘salt’ 		/sau̯/ [sau̯] ⟪saou⟫
[sau̯] 		⟨sao⟩
[sa.o̞] 		⧼salu⧽
[ˈsa.lu] 		Only occurs word-finally in stressed monosyllabic words. See additional notes at ⟨ae⟩.
au /au̯/ like ⟨ou⟩ in round. aubvru
‘tree’ 		/ˈau̯.vru/ [ˈau̯.bβru] ⟪aubvr⟫
[au̯vʀ] 		⟨aovro⟩
[ˈau.vro̞] 		⧼alubru⧽
[ˈa.lu.bru] 		See notes at ⟨ae⟩.
b /b/ as in bet. baclu
‘stick’ 		/ˈbak.lu/ [ˈbak.lu] ⟪bacl⟫
[bakɬ] 		⟨baclo⟩
[ˈba.klo̞] 		⧼pakalu⧽
[ˈpa.ka.lu] 		 
bv /v/ like ⟨v⟩ in very. ribveu
‘level’ 		/riˈveu̯/ [ri.bβeu̯] ⟪ribveu⟫
[riˈveu̯] 		⟨riveo⟩
[riˈve̞.o̞] 		⧼ribilu⧽
[riˈbi.lu] 		Only occurs word-internally. The affricate is sometimes maintained in the standardized language as /bv/.
c /k/ as in cat. couru
‘heart’ 		/ˈku.ru/ [ˈkou̯.ru] ⟪cour⟫
[kuʀ] 		⟨coro⟩
[ˈko̞.ro̞] 		⧼kúru⧽
[ˈkuːru] 		 
/ʧ/ like ⟨ch⟩ in chair. dicere
‘to say’ 		/diˈʧe.re/ [diˈcçe.re] ⟪dicer⟫
[diˈʨeʐ] 		⟨ditxer⟩
[diˈʧe̞r] 		⧼titsil⧽
[tiˈʦil] 		when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
cj /ʧ/ like ⟨ch⟩ in cheese. radjicja
‘root’ 		/raˈʤi.ʧa/ [raˈʥi.cça] ⟪radjicja⟫
[raˈʥi.ʨə] 		⟨radjitxa⟩
[raˈʤi.ʧa] 		⧼radzitsa⧽
[raˈʣi.ʦa] 		 
ctj /kʧ/ like ⟨cti⟩ in action. fruictju
‘fruit’ 		/ˈfrui̯k.ʧu/ [ˈfrui̯c.ʨu] ⟪fruict’⟫
[frui̯kɕ] 		⟨frútxo⟩
[fruːʧo̞] 		⧼prútsu⧽
[ˈpruː.ʦu] 		 
d /d/ as in door. dente
‘tooth’ 		/ˈden.te/ [ˈden.te] ⟪dent’⟫
[denʨ] 		⟨dent⟩
[de̞nt] 		⧼tints⧽
[tinʦ] 		 
/ð/ like ⟨th⟩ in other. cjaudu
‘hot’ 		/ˈʧau̯.ðu/ [ˈcçau̯.ðu] ⟪cjauth⟫
[ʨau̯ð] 		⟨xaodo⟩
[ʃau̯.ðo̞] 		⧼salutu⧽
[ˈsa.lu.tu] 		when between vowels or liquids (r or l).
dj /ʤ/ like ⟨dg⟩ in edge. codjax
‘poppy’ 		/koˈʤa/ [koˈʥa] ⟪codjax⟫
[koˈʥa] 		⟨codjà⟩
[ko̞ˈʤa] 		⧼kudzax⧽
[kuˈʣa] 		 
e /e/ like ⟨é⟩ in French été. estelja
‘star’ 		/eˈste.ʎa/ [eˈste.ʎa] ⟪estelja⟫
[eˈste.ɮə] 		⟨estelia⟩
[e̞ˈste̞.li.a] 		⧼ítilia⧽
[iːˈti.li.a] 		 
ei /i/ as in weird. deice
‘ten’ 		/ˈdei̯.ʧe/ [ˈdei̯.cçe] ⟪deic’⟫
[diʨ] 		⟨dítx⟩
[diːʧ] 		⧼títs⧽
[tiːʦ] 		 
eou /eu̯/ like ⟨ell⟩ in bell with a Cockney accent. beou
‘beautiful’ 		/ˈbeu̯/ [beu̯] ⟪beou⟫
[beu̯] 		⟨beo⟩
[ˈbe̞.o̞] 		⧼pilu⧽
[ˈpi.lu] 		Only occurs word-finally in unstressed monosyllabic words.
eu /eu̯/ like ⟨ew⟩ in Welsh ewro. seuva
‘forest’ 		/ˈseu̯.va/ [ˈseu̯.va] ⟪seuva⟫
[ˈseu̯və] 		⟨seova⟩
[ˈse̞u̯.va] 		⧼siluba⧽
[ˈsi.lu.ba] 		 
f /f/ as in four. folja
‘leaf’ 		/ˈfo.ʎa/ [ˈfo.ʎa] ⟪folja⟫
[ˈfo.ɮə] 		⟨folia⟩
[ˈfo̞.li.a] 		⧼pulia⧽
[ˈpu.li.a] 		 
g /ɡ/ as in gift. grostu
‘thick’ 		/ˈɡro.stu/ [ˈɡro.stu] ⟪grost⟫
[ˈɡrost] 		⟨grosto⟩
[ˈɡro̞s.to̞] 		⧼krustu⧽
[ˈkru.stu] 		 
/ʤ/ as in gel. tragere
‘to pull’ 		/tɾaˈʤe.re/ [tɾaˈɟʝe.re] ⟪trager⟫
[tɾaˈʥeʐ] 		⟨tradjer⟩
[tɾaˈʤe̞r] 		⧼tradzil⧽
[tɾaˈʣil] 		when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
gj /ʤ/ like ⟨j⟩ in joke. obligjare
‘to compel’ 		/o.bliˈʤa.re/ [o.bliˈɟʝa.re] ⟪obligjar⟫
[o.bliˈʥaʐ] 		⟨oblidjar⟩
[o̞b.liˈʤar] 		⧼upridzal⧽
[u.pɾiˈʣal] 		 
gn /ŋn/ like ⟨ngn⟩ in hangnail. magnu
‘great’ 		/ˈmaŋ.nu/ [ˈmaŋ.nu] ⟪magn⟫
[ˈmaŋn] 		⟨mangano⟩
[ˈmaŋ.ɡa.no̞] 		⧼mankalu⧽
[ˈman.ka.lu] 		 
gnj /ŋɲ/ like ⟨ng⟩ followed by ⟨ny⟩: sing nyet! ignju
‘fire 		/ˈiŋ.ɲu/ [ˈiŋ.ɲu] ⟪ign’⟫
[iŋɲ] 		⟨inio⟩
[ˈi.ni.o̞] 		⧼inkuliru⧽
[ˈin.ku.li.ɾu] 		 
i /i/ as in machine. iljis
‘they’ 		/ˈi.ʎis/ [ˈi.ʎis] ⟪iljis⟫
[ˈi.ɮis] 		⟨ilis⟩
[ˈi.lis] 		⧼ilis⧽
[ˈi.lis] 		 
/j/ like ⟨y⟩ in yet. iecru
‘liver’ 		/ˈje.kru/ [ˈje.kru] ⟪iecr⟫
[jekʀ] 		⟨iecro⟩
[iˈe̞.kro̞] 		⧼ilikru⧽
[iˈlik.ɾu] 		when before any vowel except ⟨u⟩.
iu /iu̯/ like ⟨ee you⟩ in see you. fluviu
‘river’ 		/ˈflu.viw/ [ˈflu.viu̯] ⟪fluviu⟫
[ˈfɬu.viu̯] 		⟨fluvio⟩
[ˈflu.vi.o̞] 		⧼plybiru⧽
[ˈply.bi.ru] 		 
l /l/ as in lucky. lapide
‘stone’ 		/ˈla.pi.ðe/ [ˈla.pi.ðe] ⟪lapid’⟫
[laˈpiʥ] 		⟨lapid⟩
[laˈpid] 		⧼lapits⧽
[laˈpits] 		 
lj /ʎ/ like ⟨gl⟩ in Italian dagli. meiljour
‘better’ 		/miːˈʎur/ [mei̯ˈʎou̯r] [miˈɮuʀ] ⟨melior⟩
[me̞ˈli.o̞r] 		⧼míliúr⧽
[miːˈli.uːr] 		 
m /m/ as in mill. moulire
‘to die’ 		/muˈli.re/ [muˈli.re] ⟪moulir⟫
[muˈliʐ] 		⟨molir⟩
[mo̞ˈrir] 		⧼múril⧽
[muːˈril] 		 
n /n/ as in net. nascere
‘to be born’ 		/nasˈʧe.re/ [nasˈcçe.re] ⟪nascer⟫
[nasˈʨeʐ] 		⟨naxer⟩
[naˈʃe̞r] 		⧼nastsil⧽
[nasˈʦil] 		 
nc /ŋk/ like ⟨nk⟩ in tank. ginclu
‘knee’ 		/ˈʤiŋ.klu/ [ˈɟʝiŋ.klu] ⟪gincl⟫
[ʥiŋkɬ] 		⟨jinclo⟩
[ˈʒiŋ.klo̞] 		⧼zinkuru⧽
[ˈzin.ku.ɾu] 		 
/nʧ/ like ⟨nch⟩ in inch. quince
‘fifteen’ 		/ˈkwin.ʧe/ [ˈkʷiɲ.cçe] ⟪qvinc’⟫
[ˈkʋiɲʨ] 		⟨quintx⟩
[kuˈin.ʧe] 		⧼kulints⧽
[kuˈlinʦ] 		when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
ng /ŋɡ/ like ⟨ng⟩ in finger. loungu
‘long’ 		/ˈluŋ.ɡu/ [ˈluŋ.ɡu] ⟪loung⟫
[luŋɡ] 		⟨longo⟩
[ˈlo̞ŋ.ɡo̞] 		⧼lúnku⧽
[ˈluːn.ku] 		 
/nʤ/ like ⟨ng⟩ in ginger. pungere
‘to stab’ 		/punˈʤe.re/ [punˈɟʝe.re] ⟪punger⟫
[puŋ.ɡʑeʐ] 		⟨pundjer⟩
[punˈʤe̞r] 		⧼pundzil⧽
[punˈʣil] 		when followed by ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩.
ngj /ŋʤ/ like ⟨ng j⟩ in canning jar. mengjare
‘to eat’ 		/meŋˈʤa.re/ [meɲˈɟʝa.re] ⟪mengjar⟫
[meŋˈɡʑaʐ] 		⟨mandjar⟩
[manˈʤar] 		⧼mandzal⧽
[manˈʣal] 		 
nj /ɲ/ like ⟨ni⟩ in onion. anju
‘year’ 		/ˈa.ɲu/ [ˈa.ɲu] ⟪an’⟫
[aɲ] 		⟨anio⟩
[ˈa.ni.o̞] 		⧼aniu⧽
[ˈa.ni.u] 		 
o /o/ as in old. ostu
‘bone’ 		/ˈo.stu/ [ˈo.stu] ⟪ost⟫
[ˈost] 		⟨osto⟩
[ˈo̞.sto̞] 		⧼ustu⧽
[ˈu.stu] 		 
ou /u/ like ⟨oo⟩ in soon. ouvu
‘egg’ 		/ˈu.vu/ [ˈou̯.vu] ⟪ouv⟫
[uv] 		⟨ovo⟩
[ˈo̞.vo̞] 		⧼úbu⧽
[ˈuːbu] 		 
p /p/ as in pine. pelju
‘hair’ 		/ˈpe.ʎu/ [ˈpe.ʎu] ⟪pel’⟫
[peʎ] 		⟨pelio⟩
[ˈpe̞.li.o̞] 		⧼piliu⧽
[ˈpi.li.u] 		 
qh /x/ like ⟨ch⟩ in Scottish loch. aqhma
‘life force’ 		/ˈax.ma/ [ˈax.ma] ⟪aqhma⟫
[ˈaχ.mə] 		⟨ahma⟩
[ˈaç.ma] 		⧼aqma⧽
[ˈaʀ.ma] 		Only in borrowings.
qu /kw/ as in quiz. quei
‘what’ 		/kwiː/ [kʷei̯] ⟪qvei⟫
[kʋi] 		⟨que⟩
[ˈku.e̞] 		⧼kuri⧽
[ˈku.ɾi] 		 
r /r/ as in Spanish rojo. ridere
‘to laugh’ 		/riˈðe.re/ [riˈðe.re] ⟪rider⟫
[riˈðeʐ] 		⟨rider⟩
[riˈðe̞r] 		⧼ritil⧽
[ɾiˈtil] 		 
rj /r̝/ like ⟨ř⟩ in Czech Dvořak. terja
‘earth’ 		/ˈte.r̝a/ [ˈte.r̝a] ⟪terja⟫
[ˈte.ʐə] 		⟨teria⟩
[ˈte̞.ri.a] 		⧼tiria⧽
[ˈti.ri.a] 		 
s /s/ as in see. secjare
‘to cut’ 		/seˈʧa.re/ [seˈcça.re] ⟪secjar⟫
[seˈʨaʐ] 		⟨setxar⟩
[se̞ˈʧar] 		⧼sitsal⧽
[siˈʦal] 		 
/s/ as in rose. espousa
‘wife’ 		/eˈspu.za/ [eˈspu.za] ⟪espousa⟫
[eˈspu.zə] 		⟨espoza⟩
[e̞ˈspu.za] 		⧼ípuza⧽
[iːˈpu.za] 		when between vowels or liquids.
sj /ʃ/ like ⟨sh⟩ in shoe. sji
‘yes’ 		/ˈʃi/ [ˈɕi] ⟪sji⟫
[ɕi] 		⟨xi⟩
[ʃi] 		⧼si⧽
[si] 		 
t /t/ as in tall. tutu
‘all’ 		/ˈtu.tu/ [ˈtu.tu] ⟪tuth⟫
[tuθ] 		⟨tuto⟩
[ˈtu.to̞] 		⧼tytu⧽
[ˈty.tu] 		 
th /θ/ as in path. misgerith
‘I’m sorry’ 		/misˈɡeriθ/ [misˈɡøːriθ] ⟪misqherith⟫
[misˈχeriθ] 		⟨misgérith⟩
[misˈɡe̞ːriθ] 		⧼miskarit’⧽
[miˈskarit’] 		 
tj /ʧ/ like ⟨ch⟩ in church. setje
‘seven’ 		/ˈse.ʧe/ [ˈse.ʨe] ⟪set’⟫
[seʨ] 		⟨setx⟩
[se̞ʧ] 		⧼sats⧽
[saʦ] 		 
tz /ʦ/ like ⟨ts⟩ in cats. tzince
‘five’ 		/ˈʦin.ʧe/ [ˈʦiɲ.cçe] ⟪tzinc’⟫
[ʦinʨ] 		⟨sintx⟩
[sinʧ] 		⧼sints⧽
[sinʦ] 		 
/ʣ/ like ⟨ds⟩ in words. pitzitu
‘small’ 		/piˈʣi.tu/ [piˈʣi.tu] ⟪pitzith⟫
[piˈʣiθ] 		⟨pedzito⟩
[pe̞ˈʣi.to̞] 		⧼pidzitu⧽
[piˈʣi.tu] 		when between vowels or liquids.
u /u/ like ⟨oo⟩ in room. unce
‘eleven’ 		/ˈun.ʧe/ [ˈuɲ.cçe] ⟪unc’⟫
[ˈunʨ] 		⟨untx⟩
[ˈunʧ] 		⧼ynts⧽
[ˈynʦ] 		 
ui /ui̯/ like ⟨uy⟩ in Spanish muy. luictjare
‘to fight’ 		/lujkˈʧa.re/ [lui̯kˈʨa.re] ⟪luictjar⟫
[lui̯kˈɕaʐ] 		⟨lútxar⟩
[luːˈʧar] 		⧼lútsal⧽
[luːˈʦal] 		 
v /v/ as in voice. voulere
‘to want’ 		/vuˈle.re/ [vou̯ˈle.re] ⟪vouler⟫
[vuˈleʐ] 		⟨voler⟩
[vo̞ˈle̞r] 		⧼buril⧽
[buˈril] 		 
x /ˈ/   iljax
‘there’ 		/iˈʎa/ [iˈʎa] ⟪iljax⟫
[iˈɮa] 		⟨alià⟩
[a.liˈa] 		⧼aliax⧽
[a.liˈa] 		Indicates unexpected stress. (Eomentesa reform script uses a grave diacritic.)
z /z/ like ⟨z⟩ in zoo. quazina
‘quiver (of arrows)’ 		/ˈkwa.zi.na/ [ˈkwa.zi.na] ⟪qvazjina⟫
[ˈkʋa.ʑi.nə] 		⟨quazina⟩
[kuˈa.zi.na] 		⧼kulazina⧽
[kuˈla.zi.na] 		Only in borrowings and the digraph ⟨tz⟩.
zj /ʒ/ like ⟨j⟩ in French jamais. frezjire
‘to deceive' 		/freˈʒi.re/ [freˈʑi.re] ⟪frezjir⟫
[freˈʑiʐ] 		⟨frejir⟩
[fre̞ˈʒir] 		⧼prizil⧽
[priˈzil] 		Only in borrowings.

Orthographic Peculiarities

  • The diphthongs ⟨au⟩ and ⟨eu⟩ are written as ⟨aou⟩ and ⟨eou⟩, respectively, when they occur at the end of a monosyllabic word; however, this does not include function words, which leads to some interesting homophones:
    • ⟨au⟩ ‘to the’ ~ ⟨aou⟩ ‘I have’ (first person singular present indicative of abvere)
    • ⟨meu⟩ ‘my’ ~ ⟨meou⟩ ‘honey’
    • ⟨seu⟩ ‘his/her’ ~ ⟨seou⟩ ‘I am’ (first person singular present indicative of estere)

Pronouns

Pronouns are much the same as in English, but there is an additional distinction between dative and accusative prounouns (i.e. indirect and direct objects) which is also found in other Romance languages. There are some subtleties around how to distinguish one from the other, but the simplest, most fundamental rule is:

  1. Direct object pronouns usually precede the verb that modifies them, and
  2. Indirect object pronouns are always used after a preposition.
  Nominative
(subject) 		Genitive
(possessive) 		Dative
(indirect object) 		Accusative
(direct object)
1sg eou
I 		meu*
my 		mei
(to) me 		me, m’**
me
2sg tu
you, thou 		teu*
your, thy 		tei
(to) you, to thee 		te, t’**
you, thee
3sg.masc ilju
he 		seu*
his, her 		lei
(to) him 		le, l’**
him
3sg.fem ilja
she 		lae
(to) her 		la, l’**
her
3sg.refl - sei
(to) himself, to herself 		se, s’**
himself, herself
1pl nous(autris)
we 		noustru*
our 		nous
(to) us 		ne, n’**
us
2pl vous(autris)
you (all) 		voustru*
your 		vous
(to) you (all) 		ve, v’**
you (all)
3pl.masc iljis
they 		louru*
their 		lour
(to) them 		ljis
them
3pl.fem iljes
they 		ljes
them

* Declines for gender and number (click for additional forms).
** Form used before a vowel.

Determiners

Articles

The articles align very closely to the English articles “the” (definite) and “a” or “an” (indefinite). The singular articles are shortened before a word beginning with a vowel.

The Definite Article

  Sing. Sing. (_V) Plur.
Masculine lu
lu lapide
‘the stone’ 		l’
l’acelju
‘the bird’ 		lis
lis viris
‘the men’
Feminine la
la mage
‘the witch’ 		l’
l’estelja
‘the star’ 		les
les muljeres
‘the women’

When the masculine singular article follows the prepositions a and de, they fuse into a single word, au and deu, respectively. (Cf. Spanish al, French du, or Italian dal.)

The Indefinite Article

  Sing. Sing. (_V) Plur.
Masculine un
un lapide
‘a stone’ 		n’
n’acelju
‘a bird’ 		unis
unis viris
‘some men’
Feminine una
una mage
‘a witch’ 		n’
n’estelja
‘a star’ 		unes
unes muljeres
‘some women’

Possessives

The possessive adjectives from the personal pronouns are declined as adjectives (below), but the singular pronouns have a slightly irregular masculine singular form. Meu (‘my’) declines thus:

  Singular Plural
Masculine me-u me-vis
Feminine me-va me-ves

Teu (‘your’) and seu (‘his/her’) decline similarly.

Numerals

The “teen” numbers (11-19) are highly irregular. In Classical Braereth, these all ended with ‑dice, which in the modern languages has been contracted to ‑ce.

While vinctjeth-uictjou is the literary standard, none of the dialects actually uses this form: Classical Braereth used an older form vinctje-eth-uictjou where the conjunction had not been assimilated into the first element; Tenibvreth does not retain the –th of the conjunction because uictjou begins with a consonant sound (it is sometimes written as ⟪vinctje-victjou⟫); Eomentesa’s reform orthography spells it as ⟨vintx-eth-útxo⟩.

tzeiru 0 deice (archaic) 10 vinctje 20 tzeiru 0
unu 1 unce undice 11 vinctjeth-un 21 deice 10
dous 2 douce doudice 12 vinctje-dous 22 vinctje 20
treis 3 treice treidice 13 vinctje-treis 23 treinctje 30
quatru 4 quarce quardice 14 vinctje-quatru 24 quarante 40
tzince 5 quince quindice 15 vinctje-tzince 25 quintzante 50
seis 6 seice seidice 16 vinctje-seis 26 sesante 60
setje 7 setece setedice 17 vinctje-setje 27 setante 70
uictjou 8 uictoce uictodice 18 vinctjeth-uictjou 28 uictante 80
nouve 9 nouce nouvedice 19 vinctje-nouve 29 nounante 90

Nouns

Like all Romance languages, nouns have grammatical gender; every noun has a value of either masculine or feminine.

Most masculine nouns end in -u. Most feminine nouns end in -a. Some nouns end in -e, and may be either masculine or feminine. (Nouns and adjectives that end in -e come from Latin terms ending in -is.)

The plurals of nouns are very regular: Masculine noun plurals always end in -is, while feminine plurals end in -es.

  Singular Plural
Masculine oucl-u, ‘eye’
mar-e, ‘sea’ 		oucl-is, ‘eyes’
mar-is, ‘seas’
Feminine uricl-a, ‘ear’
niv-e, ‘snow’ 		uricl-es, ‘ears’
niv-es, ‘snows’

Masculine nouns ending in a diphthong (that is, ⟨au⟩, ⟨aou⟩, ⟨eu⟩, or ⟨eu⟩) have a slightly odd shift, because the u of those vowel clusters actually comes from an earlier l, which remains in the plural forms. When this occurs in adjectives, the feminine singular form also has an l.

  Singular Plural
Masculine m-eou, ‘honey’
gindr-au, ‘general’ 		m-elis, ‘honeys’
gindr-alis, ‘generals’

Feminine nouns ending in -tja (from Latin -tiō) have an irregular plural which restores the n in the ending of the plural form.

  Singular Plural
Feminine ac-tja, ‘action’
iunc-tja, ‘junction’ 		ac-tjones, ‘actions’
iunc-tjones, ‘junctions’

Adjectives

Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. The endings of the genders are identical to those of the nouns (above), including some adjectives which end in ⟨-e⟩ and may be masculine or feminine, demonstrated here with pitzitu ‘small’ and leve ‘smooth’.

  Singular Plural
Masculine pitzit-u
lev-e 		pitzit-is
lev-is
Feminine pitzit-a
lev-e 		pitzit-es
lev-es

Also like the nouns, a final ⟨-l⟩ in some adjectives becomes ⟨-u⟩ in the masculine singular, as seen here in umbrau ‘shady’.

  Singular Plural
Masculine umbra-u umbra-lis
Feminine umbra-la umbra-les

Masculine singular adjectives ending in ⟨-cu⟩ have a feminine form ending with ⟨-cja⟩, as seen here with blancu ‘white’.

  Singular Plural
Masculine blan-cu blan-cis
Feminine blan-cja blan-ces

An unusual development in Braereth, compared to other Romance languages, is the development of participles to have a gendered adjectival form (which is normal) as well as a non-gendered form used exclusively with compound verbs (which is not).

For example, facere ‘to do’ has the past participle faectje ‘done’, used in verb phrases such as L’aou faectje, ‘I have done it’, but Mis deveris soun faectjis, ‘My chores are done’, (with a masculine plural ending). Almost without exception, the uninflected form ends in –e, while the inflected forms take the standard masculine, feminine, singular, and plural endings –u, –a, –is, and –es.

Verbs

Braereth verbs can be divided into four basic categories, similar to the verbs of other Romance languages. Most verb infinitives end in -are, -ere, or -ire, and these make up the basis of the first three classes of regular verbs. The fourth category is kind of a junk-drawer of verbs that end in -ure and irregular verbs from the first three categories.

Regular Verbs

  -are Verbs -ere Verbs -ire Verbs -ure Verbs
Infinitive: est-are
‘to stand’ 		iac-ere
‘to put’ 		dourm-ire
‘to sleep’ 		fl-ure
‘to flow’
eou est-au iac-eu dourm-iu fl-ui
tu est-aes iac-eis dourm-is fl-uis
ilj(u/a) est-ae iac-ei dourm-ith fl-uith
nous est-amu iac-emu dourm-imu fl-umu
vous est-ate iac-ete dourm-ite fl-ute
ilj(i/e)s est-aen iac-ein dourm-in fl-uin
Present Participle: est-ante iac-ente dourm-inte fl-unte
Past Participle: est-ate iac-ete dourm-ite fl-ute

Irregular Verbs

There are many, but here are a few of the most useful:

  estere abvere ire dare* facere
  ‘to be’ ‘to have’ ‘to go’ ‘to give’ ‘to do’
eou seou aou vaou d-aou f-eou
tu eis aes vaes d-aes f-eis
ilj(u/a) ei(th) ae vae d-ae f-ei(th)
nous seimu abv-emu i-mu d-amu fac-emu
vous seite abv-ete i-te d-ate f-aectje
ilj(i/e)s soun aun vaun d-aen f-ein
Present Participle: est-ente ante inte d-ante fac-ente
Past Participle: est-e eute ite d-ate f-aectje

* Dare isn't really irregular, it's just a single-letter stem, hence the first person singular present indicative has -aou instead of -au.

A Note about Participles

When used as a verb (e.g. in compound verb tenses), the present and past participle forms end with -e (e.g. Estae dourmint-e, ‘He is sleeping.’) But declines fully when used as an adjective: Eith un viru dourmint-u, ‘He is a sleeping man.’

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