Difference between revisions of "Maltcégj"

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[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category: A priori]]
[[Category: A priori]]
[[Category: Maltcégj]]


Maltcégj is an a priori, quasi-agglutinative, semi-analytic head-initial language created by BenJamin P. Johnson in 2001. It has a strict VSO sentence structure that is modified with large numbers of verbal and nominal particles.
Maltcégj is an a priori, quasi-agglutinative, semi-analytic head-initial language created by BenJamin P. Johnson in 2001. It has a strict VSO sentence structure that is modified with large numbers of verbal and nominal particles.
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| '''a''' || '''b''' || '''c''' || '''d''' || '''ð''' || '''e''' || '''f''' || '''g''' || '''ǧ''' || '''h''' || '''i'''
| '''a'''  
| '''b'''  
| '''c'''  
| '''d'''  
| '''ð'''  
| '''e'''  
| '''f'''  
| '''g'''  
| '''ǧ'''  
| '''h'''  
| '''i'''
|-
|-
| /ɑ/ || /b/ || /ʃ/ || /d/ || /ð/ || /ɛ/ || /f/ || /g/ || /γ/ || /h/ || /i/
| /ɑ/  
| /b/  
| /ʃ/  
| /d/  
| /ð/  
| /ɛ/  
| /f/  
| /g/  
| /γ/  
| /h/  
| /i/
|-
|-
| '''j''' || '''k''' || '''l''' || '''ɮ''' || '''ʌ''' || '''m''' || '''n''' || '''o''' || '''ǫ''' || '''p''' || '''r'''
| '''j'''  
| '''k'''  
| '''l'''  
| '''ɮ'''  
| '''ʌ'''  
| '''m'''  
| '''n'''  
| '''o'''  
| '''ǫ'''  
| '''p'''  
| '''r'''
|-
|-
| /ʒ/ || /k/ || /l/ || /ɮ/ || /ɫ̩/ || /m/ || /n/ || /o/ || /ɔ/ || /p/ || /ɾ/
| /ʒ/  
| /k/  
| /l/  
| /ɮ/  
| /ɫ̩/  
| /m/  
| /n/  
| /o/  
| /ɔ/  
| /p/  
| /ɾ/
|-
|-
| '''ʀ''' || '''s''' || '''t''' || '''þ''' || '''u''' || '''v''' || '''w''' || '''x''' || '''y''' || '''ẏ''' || '''z'''
| '''ʀ'''  
| '''s'''  
| '''t'''  
| '''þ'''  
| '''u'''  
| '''v'''  
| '''w'''  
| '''x'''  
| '''y'''  
| '''ẏ'''  
| '''z'''
|-
|-
| /ɹ̩/ || /s/ || /t/ || /θ/ || /u/ || /v/ || /w/ || /x/ || /ɪ/ || /j/ || /z/
| /ɹ̩/  
| /s/  
| /t/  
| /θ/  
| /u/  
| /v/  
| /w/  
| /x/  
| /ɪ/  
| /j/  
| /z/
|-
|-
|}
|}
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**Even if this would not result in a standard diphthong, this convention is still followed any time there are two disyllabic pertingent vowels, e.g. ''[[kúluï]]'' ‘all’, ''[[itáliȧ]]'' ‘Italy’.  
**Even if this would not result in a standard diphthong, this convention is still followed any time there are two disyllabic pertingent vowels, e.g. ''[[kúluï]]'' ‘all’, ''[[itáliȧ]]'' ‘Italy’.  
**If the second vowel is stressed, however, the first vowel is marked instead, e.g. italiáno → ''[[italïáno]]'' ‘Italian’.
**If the second vowel is stressed, however, the first vowel is marked instead, e.g. italiáno → ''[[italïáno]]'' ‘Italian’.
**(NB: This stylistic rule is followed rather loosely, and often only applies to the letters <ë> and <ï>.)
**(NB: This stylistic rule is followed rather loosely, and often only applies to the letters 〈ë〉 and 〈ï〉.)
* No capital letters are used.
* No capital letters are used.


Line 40: Line 101:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!width=160px| 
!width=100px| Labial
!width=100px| Dental
!width=100px| Coronal
!width=100px| Palatal
!width=100px| Velar
!width=100px| Glottal
!width=300px| Description
|-
|-
! !! Labial !! Dental !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal !! Description
!style="text-align: right"| Continuant (Voiced)
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-v.gif]]<br />'''v''' /v/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-ð.gif]]<br />'''ð''' /ð/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-z.gif]]<br />'''z''' /z/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-j.gif]]<br />'''j''' /ʒ/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-gh.gif]]<br />'''ǧ''' /γ/
|
| These are the default forms of all the obstruents.
|-
|-
| '''Continuant<br>Voiced'''|| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-v.gif]]<br>'''v''' /v/ </center>|| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-ð.gif]]<br>'''ð''' /ð/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-z.gif]]<br>'''z''' /z/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-j.gif]]<br>'''j''' /ʒ/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-gh.gif]]<br>'''ǧ''' /γ/</center> || || These are the default forms of all the obstruents.
!style="text-align: right"| Coninuant (Unvoiced)
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-f.gif]]<br />'''f''' /f/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-þ.gif]]<br />'''þ''' /θ/  
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-s.gif]]<br />'''s''' /s/  
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-c.gif]]<br />'''c''' /ʃ/  
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-x.gif]]<br />'''x''' /x/  
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-h.gif]]<br />'''h''' /h/  
| For devoicing, an extra stroke is added to the body of the character. (There is not an extra stroke in 〈h〉, because since there is no voiced equivalent, it is simpler to leave it in default form.)
|-
|-
| '''Coninuant<br>Unvoiced'''|| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-f.gif]]<br>'''f''' /f/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-þ.gif]]<br>'''þ''' /θ/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-s.gif]]<br>'''s''' /s/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-c.gif]]<br>'''c''' /ʃ/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-x.gif]]<br>'''x''' /x/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-h.gif]]<br>'''h''' /h/</center> || For devoicing, an extra stroke is added to the body of the character. (There is not an extra stroke in <h>, because since there is no voiced equivalent, it is simpler to leave it in default form.)
!
!colspan=2| Labial
!colspan=2| Alveolar
!colspan=2| Vela
|-
|-
| ||colspan=2| <center>'''Labial'''</center> ||colspan=2| <center>'''Alveolar'''</center> ||colspan=2| <center>'''Velar'''</center>
!style="text-align: right"| Stops
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-b.gif]]<br />'''b''' /b/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-p.gif]]<br />'''p''' /p/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-d.gif]]<br />'''d''' /d/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-t.gif]]<br />'''t''' /t/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-g.gif]]<br />'''g''' /g/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-k.gif]]<br />'''k''' /k/
| Stops are indicated by a diacritic: [[File:Maltcégj-plosive.gif]]
|-
|-
| '''Stops'''|| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-b.gif]]<br>'''b''' /b/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-p.gif]]<br>'''p''' /p/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-d.gif]]<br>'''d''' /d/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-t.gif]]<br>'''t''' /t/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-g.gif]]<br>'''g''' /g/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-k.gif]]<br>'''k''' /k/</center> || Stops are indicated by a diacritic: [[File:Maltcégj-plosive.gif]]
!style="text-align: right"| Nasal
|colspan=2 style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-m.gif]]<br />'''m''' /m/  
|colspan=2 style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-n.gif]]<br />'''n''' /n/  
|  
|  
| A different diacritic is used for nasals: [[File:Maltcégj-nasal.gif]]
|-
|-
| '''Nasal'''||colspan=2| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-m.gif]]<br>'''m''' /m/</center> ||colspan=2| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-n.gif]]<br>'''n''' /n/</center> || || || A different diacritic is used for nasals: [[File:Maltcégj-nasal.gif]]
! &nbsp;
!colspan=3| Lambdic
!colspan=3| Rhotic
|-
|-
| ||colspan=3| <center>'''Lambdic'''</center> ||colspan=3| <center>'''Rhotic'''</center> ||colspan=2| <center></center>
!style="text-align: right"| Liquids
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-l.gif]]<br />'''l''' /l/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-lh.gif]]<br />'''ʌ''' /ɫ̩/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-l-diac.gif]] diacritic&nbsp;'''l'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-r.gif]]<br />'''r''' /ɾ/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-rh.gif]]<br />'''ʀ''' /ɹ̩/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-r-diac.gif]] diacritic&nbsp;'''r''' 
| 〈r〉 and 〈l〉 only appear in default form when they stand on their own; whenever either appears as a part of a consonant cluster, they are written as a diacritic.
|}
 
===Phonology===
====Consonants====
{| class="wikitable"
!width=160px| &nbsp;
!width=100px| Labial
!width=100px| Dental
!width=100px| Coronal
!width=100px| Palatal
!width=100px| Velar
!width=100px| Glottal
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Plosive
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|p · b
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|t · d
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|k · g
|
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Affricate
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|pf · bv
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|ts · dz
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|tc · dj
|
|
|-
|-
| '''Liquids'''|| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-l.gif]]<br>'''l''' /l/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-lh.gif]]<br>'''ʌ''' /ɫ̩/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-l-diac.gif]] diacritic&nbsp;'''l'''</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-r.gif]]<br>'''r''' /ɾ/</center> || <center>[[File:Maltcégj-rh.gif]]<br>'''ʀ''' /ɹ̩/</center>|| <center>[[File:Maltcégj-r-diac.gif]] diacritic&nbsp;'''r''' </center> || <r> and <l> only appear in default form when they stand on their own; whenever either appears as a part of a consonant cluster, they are written as a diacritic.
!style="text-align: right"|Fricative
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|f · v
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|þ · ð
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|s · z
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|c · j
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|x · ǧ
|rowspan=2 style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|h ·
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Approximant
|
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ʀ<ref>〈ʀ〉 only occurs as a syllabic; it is treated as a vowel.</ref>
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ẏ
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · w
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Nasal
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · m
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · n
|
|
|
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Tap / Flap
|
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · r
|
|
|
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Lateral Affricate
|
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|tɮ · dɮ
|
|
|
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Lateral Fricative
|
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ɮ
|
|
|
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Lateral Approximant
|
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · l
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ʌ<ref>〈ʌ〉 only occurs as a syllabic; it is treated as a vowel.</ref>
|
|}
|}


[More coming soon...]
===Phonology===
====Consonants====
<center>
[[File:Maltcégj-cons.gif|Maltcégj Consonants]]
</center>
=====Stops=====
=====Stops=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=3| Unvoiced
!colspan=3| Voiced
|-
|-
|colspan=3| '''Unvoiced'''
!valign="top"| p
|colspan=3| '''Voiced'''
|-
|valign="top"| '''p'''
|valign="top"| /p/  
|valign="top"| /p/  
| as in '''p'''ut<br>[[pul#Maltcégj|'''''p'''ul'']] [pʰul] ‘he’  
| as in '''p'''ut<br />[[pul#Maltcégj|'''''p'''ul'']] [pʰul] ‘he’  
|valign="top"| '''b'''
!valign="top"| b
|valign="top"| /b/  
|valign="top"| /b/  
| as in '''b'''at<br>[[badj#Maltcégj|'''''b'''adj'']] [bʰaʤ] ‘to have’
| as in '''b'''at<br />[[badj#Maltcégj|'''''b'''adj'']] [bʰaʤ] ‘to have’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''t'''
!valign="top"| t
|valign="top"| /t/  
|valign="top"| /t/  
| as in '''t'''op<br>[[talp#Maltcégj|'''''t'''alp'']] [tʰɑlp] ‘head’  
| as in '''t'''op<br />[[talp#Maltcégj|'''''t'''alp'']] [tʰɑlp] ‘head’  
|valign="top"| '''d'''
!valign="top"| d
|valign="top"| /d/  
|valign="top"| /d/  
| as in '''d'''og<br>[[dið#Maltcégj|'''''d'''ið'']] [dʰið] ‘beautiful’
| as in '''d'''og<br />[[dið#Maltcégj|'''''d'''ið'']] [dʰið] ‘beautiful’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''k'''
!valign="top"| k
|valign="top"| /k/  
|valign="top"| /k/  
| as in '''k'''eep<br>[[kat#Maltcégj|'''''k'''at'']] [kʰɑt] ‘dry’  
| as in '''k'''eep<br />[[kat#Maltcégj|'''''k'''at'']] [kʰɑt] ‘dry’  
|valign="top"| '''g'''
!valign="top"| g
|valign="top"| /g/  
|valign="top"| /g/  
| as in '''g'''et<br>[[gelk#Maltcégj|'''''g'''elk'']] [gʰɛlk] ‘to give’
| as in '''g'''et<br />[[gelk#Maltcégj|'''''g'''elk'']] [gʰɛlk] ‘to give’
|-
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=3| Unvoiced
!colspan=3| Voiced
|-
|-
|colspan=3| '''Unvoiced'''
!valign="top"| pf
|colspan=3| '''Voiced'''
|-
|valign="top"| '''pf'''
|valign="top"| /p͡f/  
|valign="top"| /p͡f/  
| as in German '''''Pf'''erd''<br>[[pfatɮ#Maltcégj|'''''pf'''atɮ'']] [p͡fɑt͡ɬ] ‘spit’  
| as in German '''''Pf'''erd''<br />[[pfatɮ#Maltcégj|'''''pf'''atɮ'']] [p͡fɑt͡ɬ] ‘spit’  
|valign="top"| '''bv'''
!valign="top"| bv  
|valign="top"| /b͡v/  
|valign="top"| /b͡v/  
| as in o'''bv'''ious <br>[[bvrac#Maltcégj|'''''bv'''rac'']] [bvɾɑʃ] ‘sparrow’
| as in o'''bv'''ious <br />[[bvrac#Maltcégj|'''''bv'''rac'']] [bvɾɑʃ] ‘sparrow’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''ts'''
!valign="top"| ts  
|valign="top"| /ʦ/  
|valign="top"| /ʦ/  
| as in ge'''ts'''<br>[[frants#Maltcégj|''fran'''ts''''']] [fɾɑnʦ] ‘France’  
| as in ge'''ts'''<br />[[frants#Maltcégj|''fran'''ts''''']] [fɾɑnʦ] ‘France’  
|valign="top"| '''dz'''
!valign="top"| dz  
|valign="top"| /ʣ/  
|valign="top"| /ʣ/  
| as in a'''dz'''e<br>[[xandz#Maltcégj|''xan'''dz''''']] [xɑnʣ] ‘Chinese character’
| as in a'''dz'''e<br />[[xandz#Maltcégj|''xan'''dz''''']] [xɑnʣ] ‘Chinese character’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''tc'''
!valign="top"| tc
|valign="top"| /ʧ/  
|valign="top"| /ʧ/  
| as in '''ch'''ur'''ch'''<br>[[tcitsíc#Maltcégj|'''''tc'''itsíc'']] [ʧi’ʦiʃ] ‘to sneeze’  
| as in '''ch'''ur'''ch'''<br />[[tcitsíc#Maltcégj|'''''tc'''itsíc'']] [ʧi’ʦiʃ] ‘to sneeze’  
|valign="top"| '''dj'''
!valign="top"| dj  
|valign="top"| /ʤ/  
|valign="top"| /ʤ/  
| as in '''j'''u'''dge'''<br>[[djáska#Maltcégj|'''''dj'''áska'']] [‘ʤɑskɑ] ‘cinnamon’
| as in '''j'''u'''dge'''<br />[[djáska#Maltcégj|'''''dj'''áska'']] [‘ʤɑskɑ] ‘cinnamon’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| ''''''
!valign="top"| tɮ  
|valign="top"| /ƛ (t͡ɬ)/  
|valign="top"| /ƛ (t͡ɬ)/  
| as <ll> in Icelandic ''a'''ll'''a''<br>[[txatɮ#Maltcégj|''txa'''tɮ''''']] [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’  
| as 〈ll〉 in Icelandic ''a'''ll'''a''<br />[[txatɮ#Maltcégj|''txa'''tɮ''''']] [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’  
|valign="top"| ''''''
!valign="top"| dɮ  
|valign="top"| /λ (d͡ɮ)/  
|valign="top"| /λ (d͡ɮ)/  
| as in Xhosa ''in'''dl'''ovu''<br>[[ódɮo#Maltcégj|''ó'''dɮ'''o'']] [‘o.d͡ɮo] ‘mouth’
| as in Xhosa ''in'''dl'''ovu''<br />[[ódɮo#Maltcégj|''ó'''dɮ'''o'']] [‘o.d͡ɮo] ‘mouth’
|-
|}
|}


There are eight “pure” affricates in Maltcégj, though none are represented by their own unique character.  For more information, see Consonant Clusters, below.
There are eight “pure” affricates in Maltcégj, though none are represented by their own unique character.  For more information, see [[#Consonant Clusters|Consonant Clusters]], below.


=====Fricatives=====
=====Fricatives=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=3| Unvoiced
!colspan=3| Voiced
|-
|-
|colspan=3| '''Unvoiced'''
!valign="top"| f  
|colspan=3| '''Voiced'''
|-
|valign="top"| '''f'''
|valign="top"| /f/  
|valign="top"| /f/  
| as in '''f'''oot<br>[[faurx#Maltcégj|'''''f'''aurx'']] [fau̯ɾx] ‘heat’
| as in '''f'''oot<br />[[faurx#Maltcégj|'''''f'''aurx'']] [fau̯ɾx] ‘heat’
|valign="top"| '''v'''
!valign="top"| v  
|valign="top"| /v/  
|valign="top"| /v/  
| as in '''v'''ery<br>[[víktro#Maltcégj|'''''v'''íktro]] [‘vik.tɾo] ‘tree’
| as in '''v'''ery<br />[[víktro#Maltcégj|'''''v'''íktro]] [‘vik.tɾo] ‘tree’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''þ'''
!valign="top"| þ  
|valign="top"| /θ/  
|valign="top"| /θ/  
| as <nowiki><th></nowiki> in '''th'''ing<br>[[þad#Maltcégj|'''''þ'''ad]] [θɑd] ‘man’
| as 〈th〉 in '''th'''ing<br />[[þad#Maltcégj|'''''þ'''ad]] [θɑd] ‘man’
|valign="top"| '''ð'''
!valign="top"| ð  
|valign="top"| /ð/  
|valign="top"| /ð/  
| as <nowiki><th></nowiki> in '''th'''en<br>[[ðak#Maltcégj|'''''ð'''ak]] [ðɑk] ‘to say’
| as 〈th〉 in '''th'''en<br />[[ðak#Maltcégj|'''''ð'''ak]] [ðɑk] ‘to say’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''s'''
!valign="top"| s  
|valign="top"| /s/  
|valign="top"| /s/  
| as in '''s'''ing<br>[[salméilo#Maltcégj|'''''s'''alméilo'']] [sɑl’mɛi̯.lo] ‘apple’
| as in '''s'''ing<br />[[salméilo#Maltcégj|'''''s'''alméilo'']] [sɑl’mɛi̯.lo] ‘apple’
|valign="top"| '''z'''
!valign="top"| z  
|valign="top"| /z/  
|valign="top"| /z/  
| as in '''z'''oo<br>[[zendj#Maltcégj|'''''z'''endj'']] [zɛnʤ] ‘paint’
| as in '''z'''oo<br />[[zendj#Maltcégj|'''''z'''endj'']] [zɛnʤ] ‘paint’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''c'''
!valign="top"| c  
|valign="top"| /ʃ/  
|valign="top"| /ʃ/  
| as <sh> in '''sh'''oe<br>[[cul#Maltcégj|'''''c'''ul'']] [ʃul] ‘prophesy’
| as 〈sh〉 in '''sh'''oe<br />[[cul#Maltcégj|'''''c'''ul'']] [ʃul] ‘prophesy’
|valign="top"| '''j'''
!valign="top"| j  
|valign="top"| /ʒ/  
|valign="top"| /ʒ/  
| as in French '''''j'''amais''<br>[[jadíȯ#Maltcégj|'''''j'''adíȯ'']] [ʒɑ’di.o] ‘sun’
| as in French '''''j'''amais''<br />[[jadíȯ#Maltcégj|'''''j'''adíȯ'']] [ʒɑ’di.o] ‘sun’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''x'''
!valign="top"| x  
|valign="top"| /x/  
|valign="top"| /x/  
| as <ch> in German ''Ba'''ch'''''<br>[[xac#Maltcégj|'''''x'''ac'']] [xɑʃ] ‘difficult’
| as 〈ch〉 in German ''Ba'''ch'''''<br />[[xac#Maltcégj|'''''x'''ac'']] [xɑʃ] ‘difficult’
|valign="top"| '''ǧ'''
!valign="top"| ǧ  
|valign="top"| /γ/  
|valign="top"| /γ/  
| as <g> in Spanish ''ami'''g'''o''<br>[[ǧénba#Maltcégj|'''''ǧ'''énba'']] [‘γɛn.bɑ] ‘apricot’
| as 〈g〉 in Spanish ''ami'''g'''o''<br />[[ǧénba#Maltcégj|'''''ǧ'''énba'']] [‘γɛn.bɑ] ‘apricot’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''h'''
!valign="top"| h  
|valign="top"| /h/  
|valign="top"| /h/  
| as in '''h'''ello<br>[[hanák#Maltcégj|'''''h'''anák'']] [hɑ’nɑk] ‘person, human’
| as in '''h'''ello<br />[[hanák#Maltcégj|'''''h'''anák'']] [hɑ’nɑk] ‘person, human’
|-
|}
|}


Line 188: Line 362:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!valign="top"| m  
|valign="top"| '''m'''
|valign="top"| /m/  
|valign="top"| /m/  
| as in '''m'''an<br>[[márga#Maltcégj|'''''m'''árga'']] [‘mɑɾ.ga] ‘house’
| as in '''m'''an<br />[[márga#Maltcégj|'''''m'''árga'']] [‘mɑɾ.ga] ‘house’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''n'''
!valign="top"| n  
|valign="top"| /n/  
|valign="top"| /n/  
| as in '''n'''ose<br>[[nyj#Maltcégj|'''''n'''yj'']]  [nɪʒ] ‘grain’
| as in '''n'''ose<br />[[nyj#Maltcégj|'''''n'''yj'']]  [nɪʒ] ‘grain’
|-
|}
|}


NB: There is no realization of a nasal as /ŋ/, even before a velar obstruent. In many cases, an epenthetic <e> may intervene between <n> and a velar (e.g. ''hánek'' ‘grandfather’, from ''Hank''), but even when it does not, the letters are pronounced independently (e.g. ''gýnko'' /'gɪn.ko/ ‘ginko’, not **/'gɪŋ.ko/).
NB: There is no realization of a nasal as /ŋ/, even before a velar obstruent. In many cases, an epenthetic 〈e〉 may intervene between 〈n〉 and a velar (e.g. ''[[hánek#Maltcégj|hánek]]'' ‘grandfather’, from ''Hank''), but even when it does not, the letters are pronounced independently (e.g. ''[[gýnko#Maltcégj|gýnko]]'' /'gɪn.ko/ ‘ginko’, not **/'gɪŋ.ko/).


=====Liquids=====
=====Liquids=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!valign="top"| l
|valign="top"| /l/
| as in '''l'''amb<br />[[lexét#Maltcégj|'''''l'''exét'']] [lɛ’xɛt] ‘much, many’
|-
|-
| '''l''' || /l/ || as in '''l'''amb<br>'''''l'''exét'' [lɛ’xɛt] ‘much, many’
!valign="top"| r
|valign="top"| /ɾ/  
| as in Spanish ''pe'''r'''o''<br />[[ráta#Maltcégj|'''''r'''áta]] [‘ɾɑ.tɑ] ‘child’
|-
|-
| '''r''' || /ɾ/ || as in Spanish ''pe'''r'''o''<br>'''''r'''áta [‘ɾɑ.tɑ] ‘child’
!valign="top"| ɮ
|valign="top"| /ɮ,ɬ/<ref>〈ɮ〉 becomes devoiced to /ɬ/ when it occurs adjacent to an unvoiced obstruent (most frequently in the clusters 〈pɮ〉, 〈tɮ〉, and 〈kɮ〉), e.g. [[txatɮ#Maltcégj|''txa'''''''']] [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’.</ref>
| as in Zulu ''in'''dl'''ala<br />[[ɮat#Maltcégj|'''''ɮ'''at'']] [ɮɑt] ‘tooth’
|-
|-
| '''ɮ''' || /ɮ,ɬ/* || as in Zulu ''in'''dl'''ala<br>[[Contionary: ɮat#Maltcégj|'''''ɮ'''at'']] [ɮɑt] ‘tooth’
!valign="top"| ʌ
|-
| /ɫ̩/
| '''ʌ''' || /ɫ̩/**
|rowspan=2|<ref>While technically liquids, 〈ʌ〉 and 〈ʀ〉 never occur non-syllabically, and are better treated as vowels.</ref>
|-
| '''ʀ''' || /ɹ̩/**
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ʀ
| /ɹ̩/
|}
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki> <ɮ> becomes devoiced to /ɬ/ when it occurs adjacent to an unvoiced obstruent (most frequently in the clusters <pɮ>, <tɮ>, and <kɮ>), e.g. ''txa'''tɮ''''' [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’.
<nowiki>**</nowiki> While technically liquids, <ʌ> and <ʀ> never occur non-syllabically, and are better treated as vowels.


=====Glides=====
=====Glides=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!valign="top"| w
|valign="top"| /w/
| as in '''w'''ood<br />[[wʌf#Maltcégj|'''''w'''ʌf'']] [wɫ̩f] ‘bone’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''w''' ||valign="top"| /w/ || as in '''w'''ood<br>'''''w'''ʌf'' [wɫ̩f] ‘bone’
!valign="top"|
|-
|valign="top"| /j/  
|valign="top"| '''ẏ''' ||valign="top"| /j/ || as <y> in '''y'''ou<br>'''''ẏ'''ála'' [‘jɑ.lɑ] ‘bird’
| as 〈y〉 in '''y'''ou<br />[[ẏála#Maltcégj|'''''ẏ'''ála'']] [‘jɑ.lɑ] ‘bird’
|-
|}
|}


Line 234: Line 411:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=3| Front
!colspan=3| Back
|-
|-
|colspan=3| '''Front''' ||colspan=3| '''Back'''
!valign="top"| i
| /i/
| as 〈ee〉 in b'''ee'''t<br />[[ílǫx#Maltcégj|'''''í'''lǫx'']] [‘i.lɔx] ‘knee’
!valign="top"| u
| /u/
| as 〈oo〉 in b'''oo'''t<br />[[ucát#Maltcégj|'''''u'''cát'']] [u’ʃɑt] ‘mustard’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''i''' || /i/ || as <ee> in b'''ee'''t<br>'''''í'''lǫx'' [‘i.lɔx] ‘knee’||valign="top"| '''u''' || /u/ || as <oo> in b'''oo'''t<br>'''''u'''cát'' [u’ʃɑt] ‘mustard’
!valign="top"| y
| /ɪ/  
| as 〈i〉 in b'''i'''t<br />[[ylk#Maltcégj|'''''y'''lk'']] [ɪlk] ‘louse, nit’
!valign="top"| o
| /o/  
| as 〈oa〉 in b'''oa'''t<br />[[tcok#Maltcégj|''tc'''o'''k'']] [ʧok] ‘to go’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''y''' || /ɪ/ || as <nowiki>''</nowiki> in b'''i'''t<br>'''''y'''lk'' [ɪlk] ‘louse, nit’||valign="top"| '''o''' || /o/ || as <oa> in b'''oa'''t<br>''tc'''o'''k'' [ʧok] ‘to go’
!valign="top"| e
|-
| /ɛ/  
|valign="top"| '''e''' || /ɛ/ || as in b'''e'''t<br>'''''é'''jva'' [‘ɛʒ.vɑ] ‘mouse’||valign="top"| '''ǫ''' || /ɔ/ || as <ou> in b'''ou'''ght<br>'''''ǫ́'''bri'' [‘ɔ.bɾi] ‘niece’
| as in b'''e'''t<br />[[éjva#Maltcégj|'''''é'''jva'']] [‘ɛʒ.vɑ] ‘mouse’
|-
!valign="top"| ǫ  
|colspan=3| || '''a''' || /ɑ/ ||as in f'''a'''ther<br>'''''a'''dín'''a''''' [ɑ’di.nɑ] ‘sister’
| /ɔ/  
| as 〈ou〉 in b'''ou'''ght<br />[[ǫ́bri#Maltcégj|'''''ǫ́'''bri'']] [‘ɔ.bɾi] ‘niece’
|-
|-
|colspan=3|
!valign="top"| a
| /ɑ/
|as in f'''a'''ther<br />[[adína#Maltcégj|'''''a'''dín'''a''''']] [ɑ’di.nɑ] ‘sister’
|}
|}


Line 250: Line 444:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!valign="top"| ʌ
|valign="top"| /ɫ̩/
| as 〈le〉 in midd'''le'''<br />[[ʌ́lax#Maltcégj|'''''ʌ́'''nax'']] [‘ɫ̩.nɑx] ‘shopping’
|-
|-
|valign="top"| '''ʌ''' ||valign="top"| /ɫ̩/ || as <le> in midd'''le'''<br>'''''ʌ́'''nax'' [‘ɫ̩.nɑx] ‘shopping’
!valign="top"| ʀ
|-
|valign="top"| /ɹ̩/  
|valign="top"| '''ʀ''' ||valign="top"| /ɹ̩/ || as <er> in bett'''er'''<br>''w'''ʀ'''n'' [wɹ̩n] ‘(maternal) grandparent’
| as 〈er〉 in bett'''er'''<br />[[wʀn#Maltcégj|''w'''ʀ'''n'']] [wɹ̩n] ‘(maternal) grandparent’
|-
|}
|}


<ʌ> and <ʀ> are considered vowels in Maltcégj and never occur non-syllabically. However, they are not subject to the same diacritic rules for other non-diphthongs as other vowels (though they are still marked when stressed).
〈ʌ〉 and 〈ʀ〉 are considered vowels in Maltcégj and never occur non-syllabically. However, they are not subject to the same diacritic rules for other non-diphthongs as other vowels (though they are still marked when stressed).


=====Diphthongs=====
=====Diphthongs=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=3| Front
!colspan=3| Back
|-
|-
! Front !! !! !! Back !! !!
!valign="top"|  ai
|-
|valign="top"|  /ɑi̯/  
|valign="top"|  '''ai''' ||valign="top"|  /ɑi̯/ || as '' in h'''i'''gh<br>''skw'''ai''''' [skwɑi̯] ‘lemon’||valign="top"|  '''au''' ||valign="top"| /au̯/ || as in German ''H'''au'''s''<br>''ml'''au''''' [mlau̯] ‘what’
| as '' in h'''i'''gh<br />[[skwai#Maltcégj|''skw'''ai''''']] [skwɑi̯] ‘lemon’
|-
!valign="top"|  au  
|valign="top"|  '''ei''' ||valign="top"|  /ei̯/ || as in w'''ei'''gh<br>'''''ei'''ct'' [ei̯ʃt] ‘game’||valign="top"|  '''eu''' ||valign="top"| /ɛu̯/ || as <ew> in Welsh '''''ew'''ro''<br>''ð'''eu'''p'' [ðɛu̯p] ‘foot’
|valign="top"| /au̯/  
| as in German ''H'''au'''s''<br />[[mlau#Maltcégj|''ml'''au''''']] [mlau̯] ‘what’
|-
|-
|valign="top"|  '''oi''' ||valign="top"| /ɔi̯/ || as in '''oi'''l<br>''m'''oi'''n'' [mɔi̯n] ‘warmth’
!valign="top"|  ei
|valign="top"|  /ei̯/
| as in w'''ei'''gh<br />[[eict#Maltcégj|'''''ei'''ct'']] [ei̯ʃt] ‘game’
!valign="top"|  eu
|valign="top"| /ɛu̯/  
| as 〈ew〉 in Welsh '''''ew'''ro''<br />[[ðeup#Maltcégj|''ð'''eu'''p'']] [ðɛu̯p] ‘foot’
|-
|-
!valign="top"|  oi
|valign="top"|  /ɔi̯/
| as in '''oi'''l<br />[[moin#Maltcégj|''m'''oi'''n'']] [mɔi̯n] ‘warmth’
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Person !!!! Notes !! Reflexive !! Reciprocal
! Person  
!   
!   
! Notes  
! Reflexive  
! Reciprocal
|-
|-
| 1sg || ''jǫg'' || I ||| ''jagj'' ||style="background-color: #CCCCCC;" rowspan=7| --
| 1sg  
| ''[[jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]''  
| I  
|   
| ''[[jagj#Maltcégj|jagj]]''  
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;" rowspan=7| --
|-
|-
| 2sg || ''mélem'' || you |||rowspan=2| ''madj''
| 2sg  
| ''[[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]''  
| you  
|   
|rowspan=2| ''[[madj#Maltcégj|madj]]''
|-
|-
| 2sg || ''mélminei'' || you || formal
| 2sg  
| ''[[mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]''  
| you  
| formal
|-
|-
| 3sg.f. || ''pel'' || she || feminine ||rowspan=4| ''peibj''
| 3sg.f.  
| ''[[pel#Maltcégj|pel]]''  
| she  
| feminine  
|rowspan=4| ''[[peibj#Maltcégj|peibj]]''
|-
|-
| 3sg.m || ''pul'' || he || masculine
| 3sg.m  
| ''[[pul#Maltcégj|pul]]''  
| he  
| masculine
|-
|-
| 3sg.n || ''paj'' || it || inanimate
| 3sg.n  
| ''[[paj#Maltcégj|paj]]''  
| it  
| inanimate
|-
|-
| 3sg || ''pʌ'' || “they” || general or non-specific
| 3sg  
| ''[[#Maltcégj|pʌ]]''  
| “they”  
| general or non-specific
|-
|-
| 1pl || ''jǫ́lmin'' || we || inclusive ||rowspan=2| ''jeltc'' ||rowspan=2| ''játci''
| 1pl  
| ''[[jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]''  
| we  
| inclusive  
|rowspan=2| ''[[jeltc#Maltcégj|jeltc]]''  
|rowspan=2| ''[[játci#Maltcégj|játci]]''
|-
|-
| 1pl || ''jalk'' || we || general or exclusive
| 1pl  
| ''[[jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]''  
| we  
| general or exclusive
|-
|-
| 2pl || ''mélem'' || you |||rowspan=2| ''madj'' ||rowspan=2| ''mládji''
| 2pl  
| ''[[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]''  
| you  
|   
|rowspan=2| ''[[madj#Maltcégj|madj]]''  
|rowspan=2| ''[[mládji#Maltcégj|mládji]]''
|-
|-
| 2pl || ''mélminei'' || you || formal
| 2pl  
| ''[[mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]''  
| you  
| formal
|-
|-
| 3pl || ''parþ'' || they || general || ''pyldj'' || ''píkci''
| 3pl  
| ''[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]]''  
| they  
| general  
| ''[[pyldj#Maltcégj|pyldj]]''  
| ''[[píkci#Maltcégj|píkci]]''
|}
|}


Some of the most basic elements of language, pronouns will take the place of the subject in most sentences. Maltcégj pronoun structure does not differentiate much from that of English with the exception of a formal and informal second person, and the formal is very infrequently used, but there are “optional” pronouns which may offer more clarity. Just remember to use ''mélminei'' when you’re speaking to someone with whom you would use a title in English (e.g. faculty members, judges, business associates, &c). Otherwise, the pronouns above will get you through most situations.
Some of the most basic elements of language, pronouns will take the place of the subject in most sentences. Maltcégj pronoun structure does not differentiate much from that of English with the exception of a formal and informal second person, and the formal is very infrequently used, but there are “optional” pronouns which may offer more clarity. Just remember to use ''[[mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]'' when you’re speaking to someone with whom you would use a title in English (e.g. faculty members, judges, business associates, &c). Otherwise, the pronouns above will get you through most situations.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Person !!!! Notes !! Reflexive !! Reciprocal
! Person  
!   
!   
! Notes  
! Reflexive  
! Reciprocal
|-
|-
| 2pl || ''akmélem'' || you (all) |||rowspan=2| ''madj'' ||rowspan=2| ''mládji''
| 2pl  
| ''[[akmélem#Maltcégj|akmélem]]''  
| you (all)  
|   
|rowspan=2| ''[[madj#Maltcégj|madj]]''  
|rowspan=2| ''[[mládji#Maltcégj|mládji]]''
|-
|-
| 2pl || ''akmélminei'' || you (all) || formal
| 2pl  
| ''[[akmélminei#Maltcégj|akmélminei]]''  
| you (all)  
| formal
|-
|-
| 3pl || ''akpél'' || they || feminine (=parþ) ||rowspan=4|  ''pyldj'' ||rowspan=4| ''píkci''
| 3pl  
| ''[[akpél#Maltcégj|akpél]]''  
| they  
| feminine (=[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]])  
|rowspan=4|  ''[[pyldj#Maltcégj|pyldj]]''  
|rowspan=4| ''[[píkci#Maltcégj|píkci]]''
|-
|-
| 3pl || ''akpúl'' || they || masculine (=parþ)
| 3pl  
| ''[[akpúl#Maltcégj|akpúl]]''  
| they  
| masculine (=[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]])
|-
|-
| 3pl || ''akpáj'' || they || inanimate (=parþ)
| 3pl  
| ''[[akpáj#Maltcégj|akpáj]]''  
| they  
| inanimate (=[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]])
|-
|-
| 3pl || ''akpʌ́'' || they || (=parþ, incorrect)
| 3pl  
| ''[[akpʌ́#Maltcégj|akpʌ́]]''  
| they  
| (=[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]], incorrect)
|-
|-
|}
|}


If you want to be more specific, however, you can use the plural particle ''ak'' with the singular pronouns (with the exception of ''jǫg'') to make them plural. You can optionally add ''ak'' to ''mélem'' and ''mélminei'' to further explain that you are referring to more than one person.  You can also use ''ak'' with the third person pronouns if you explicitly want to annotate gender. Note, however, that saying ''akpʌ́'' is technically incorrect: This should more accurately be ''parþ'', but ''akpʌ́'' is common in speech, just as saying ''they'' in English is common to refer to a singular person whose gender is unknown or unclear (as in “Someone left their notebook here.”)
If you want to be more specific, however, you can use the plural particle ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' with the singular pronouns (with the exception of ''[[jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]'') to make them plural. You can optionally add ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' to ''[[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]'' and ''[[mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]'' to further explain that you are referring to more than one person.  You can also use ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' with the third person pronouns if you explicitly want to annotate gender. Note, however, that saying ''[[akpʌ́#Maltcégj|akpʌ́]]'' is technically incorrect: This should more accurately be ''[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]]'', but ''[[akpʌ́#Maltcégj|akpʌ́]]'' is common in speech, just as saying ''they'' in English is common to refer to a singular person whose gender is unknown or unclear (as in “Someone left their notebook here.”)


In case you are unfamiliar with the idea of inclusive and exclusive we, only use ''jǫ́lmin'' when the person you are addressing is part of the “we” in question, i.e. if you can replace it with “you and I”, or “you and the rest of us”; otherwise, always use ''jalk''. (''jalk'' can be used in an inclusive or exclusive sense if none is specified; ''jǫ́lmin'' can only be inclusive.)
In case you are unfamiliar with the idea of inclusive and exclusive we, only use ''[[jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]'' when the person you are addressing is part of the “we” in question, i.e. if you can replace it with “you and I”, or “you and the rest of us”; otherwise, always use ''[[jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]''. (''[[jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]'' can be used in an inclusive or exclusive sense if none is specified; ''[[jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]'' can only be inclusive.)


In fact, pronouns in Maltcégj are even a little simpler than those in English, because there are no cases to decline. Possessives (''my'', ''your'', ''his'', ''our'', &c.) are formed by adding the preposition ''u-'' to the word being possessed, and the accusative case (''me'', ''him'', ''her'', ''them'', &c.) by adding the postposition ''-a'' to the pronoun.
In fact, pronouns in Maltcégj are even a little simpler than those in English, because there are no cases to decline. Possessives (''my'', ''your'', ''his'', ''our'', &c.) are formed by adding the preposition ''[[u-#Maltcégj|u-]]'' to the word being possessed, and the accusative case (''me'', ''him'', ''her'', ''them'', &c.) by adding the postposition ''[[-a#Maltcégj|-a]]'' to the pronoun.


The reflexive pronouns are used when the verb of the sentence is being done ''to'' the subject of the sentence ''by'' the subject of the sentence; that is to say, when we would use the word “-self” in English (e.g. myself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, &c.)
The reflexive pronouns are used when the verb of the sentence is being done ''to'' the subject of the sentence ''by'' the subject of the sentence; that is to say, when we would use the word “-self” in English (e.g. myself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, &c.)
Line 334: Line 619:
The reciprocal pronouns are similar to the reflexive (and in many languages they are identical), but they apply only to plural subjects when the action of the verb is being done to another member of the same plural group. (In English this is generally translated as “each other.”) Compare, for example:
The reciprocal pronouns are similar to the reflexive (and in many languages they are identical), but they apply only to plural subjects when the action of the verb is being done to another member of the same plural group. (In English this is generally translated as “each other.”) Compare, for example:


''blaiðák parþ '''pyldj'''''<br />
''[[blai#Maltcégj|blai]][[ðak#Maltcégj|ðák]] [[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]] '''[[pyldj#Maltcégj|pyldj]]'''''<br />
‘they are talking to themselves’
‘they are talking to themselves’


''blaidák parþ '''píkci'''''<br />
''[[blai#Maltcégj|blai]][[ðak#Maltcégj|ðák]] [[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]] '''[[píkci#Maltcégj|píkci]]'''''<br />
‘they are talking to each other’
‘they are talking to each other’


Line 344: Line 629:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| 0 || ''zo'' || zero
| 0  
| ''[[zo#Maltcégj|zo]]''  
| zero
|-
|-
| 1 || ''am'' || one
| 1  
| ''[[am#Maltcégj|am]]''  
| one
|-
|-
| 2 || ''dai'' || two
| 2  
| ''[[dai#Maltcégj|dai]]''  
| two
|-
|-
| 3 || ''tran'' || three
| 3  
| ''[[tran#Maltcégj|tran]]''  
| three
|-
|-
| 4 || ''jamp'' || four
| 4  
| ''[[jamp#Maltcégj|jamp]]''  
| four
|-
|-
| 5 || ''frem'' || five
| 5  
| ''[[frem#Maltcégj|frem]]''  
| five
|-
|-
| 6 || ''cei'' || six
| 6  
| ''[[cei#Maltcégj|cei]]''  
| six
|-
|-
| 7 || ''dan'' || seven
| 7  
| ''[[dan#Maltcégj|dan]]''  
| seven
|-
|-
| 8 || ''relk'' || eight
| 8  
| ''[[relk#Maltcégj|relk]]''  
| eight
|-
|-
| 9 || ''nein'' || nine
| 9  
| ''[[nein#Maltcégj|nein]]''  
| nine
|-
|-
| 10 || ''seþ'' || ten
| 10  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]]''  
| ten
|-
|-
| 20 || ''daiséþ'' || twenty
| 20  
| ''[[daiséþ#Maltcégj|daiséþ]]''  
| twenty
|-
|-
| 30 || ''transéþ'' || thirty
| 30  
| ''[[transéþ#Maltcégj|transéþ]]''  
| thirty
|-
|-
| 40 || ''jampséþ'' || forty
| 40  
| ''[[jampséþ#Maltcégj|jampséþ]]''  
| forty
|-
|-
| 50 || ''fremséþ'' || fifty
| 50  
| ''[[fremséþ#Maltcégj|fremséþ]]''  
| fifty
|-
|-
| 60 || ''ceiséþ'' || sixty
| 60  
| ''[[ceiséþ#Maltcégj|ceiséþ]]''  
| sixty
|-
|-
| 70 || ''danséþ'' || seventy
| 70  
| ''[[danséþ#Maltcégj|danséþ]]''  
| seventy
|-
|-
| 80 || ''relkséþ'' || eighty
| 80  
| ''[[relkséþ#Maltcégj|relkséþ]]''  
| eighty
|-
|-
| 90 || ''neinséþ'' || ninety
| 90  
| ''[[neinséþ#Maltcégj|neinséþ]]''  
| ninety
|-
|-
| 100 || ''sam'' || hundred
| 100  
| ''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''  
| hundred
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 388: Line 713:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| 100 || ''sam'' || hundred
| 100  
| ''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''  
| hundred
|-
|-
| 1,000 || ''seþ sam'' || thousand (=ten hundreds)
| 1,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''  
| thousand (=ten hundreds)
|-
|-
| 10,000 || ''cep'' || ten thousand
| 10,000  
| ''[[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''  
| ten thousand
|-
|-
| 100,000 || ''seþ cep'' || hundred thousand (=ten ten-thousands)
| 100,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''  
| hundred thousand (=ten ten-thousands)
|-
|-
| 1,000,000 || ''sam cep'' || million (=hundred ten-thousands)
| 1,000,000  
| ''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''  
| million (=hundred ten-thousands)
|-
|-
| 10,000,000 || ''seþ sam cep'' || ten million (=ten hundred ten-thousands)
| 10,000,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''  
| ten million (=ten hundred ten-thousands)
|-
|-
| 100,000,000 || ''jak'' || hundred million
| 100,000,000  
| ''[[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| hundred million
|-
|-
| 1,000,000,000 || ''seþ jak'' || milliard/billion (=ten hundred-millions)
| 1,000,000,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| milliard/billion (=ten hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 10,000,000,000 || ''sam jak'' || ten milliard/billion (=hundred hundred-millions)
| 10,000,000,000  
| ''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| ten milliard/billion (=hundred hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 100,000,000,000 || ''seþ sam jak'' || hundred milliard/billion (=ten hundred hundred-millions)
| 100,000,000,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| hundred milliard/billion (=ten hundred hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 1,000,000,000,000 || ''cep jak'' || billion/trillion (=ten thousand hundred-millions)
| 1,000,000,000,000  
| ''[[cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| billion/trillion (=ten thousand hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 10,000,000,000,000 || ''seþ cep jak'' || ten billion/trillion (=ten ten-thousand hundred-millions)
| 10,000,000,000,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| ten billion/trillion (=ten ten-thousand hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 100,000,000,000,000 || ''sam cep jak'' || hundred billion/trillion (=hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
| 100,000,000,000,000  
| ''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| hundred billion/trillion (=hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 1,000,000,000,000,000 || ''seþ sam cep jak'' || billiard/quadrillion (=ten hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
| 1,000,000,000,000,000  
| ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| billiard/quadrillion (=ten hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
|-
|-
| 10,000,000,000,000,000 || ''gwil'' || ten billiard/quadrillion
| 10,000,000,000,000,000  
| ''[[gwil#Maltcégj|gwil]]''  
| ten billiard/quadrillion
|-
|-
|}
|}


Maltcégj numbers are base-10 (decimal), but they increase incrementally instead of in the more regular groups of three or six.  Therefore, numbers through 999 are enumerated just as they are in English, but the number 1,000 is considered “ten hundred,” or ''seþ sam''. Thereafter, 10,000 is ''cep'', 100,000 ''seþ cep'' ‘ten ten-thousands’, 1,000,000 is ''sam cep'' ‘one hundred ten-thousands’, 10,000,000 is ''seþ sam cep'' ‘ten hundred ten-thousands’, and 100,000,000 is ''jak''. The next increment after ''jak'' is ''gwil'', which has a value of ten quadrillion (or ten billiard if you’re from some parts of Europe), followed by ''ǧan'', which is a number large enough that you shouldn’t ever need it unless you’re counting individual atoms, but it’s something like one hundred nonillion (10³²).
Maltcégj numbers are base-10 (decimal), but they increase incrementally instead of in the more regular groups of three or six.  Therefore, numbers through 999 are enumerated just as they are in English, but the number 1,000 is considered “ten hundred,” or ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''. Thereafter, 10,000 is ''[[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'', 100,000 ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'' ‘ten ten-thousands’, 1,000,000 is ''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'' ‘one hundred ten-thousands’, 10,000,000 is ''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'' ‘ten hundred ten-thousands’, and 100,000,000 is ''[[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''. The next increment after ''[[jak#Maltcégj|jak]]'' is ''[[gwil#Maltcégj|gwil]]'', which has a value of ten quadrillion (or ten billiard if you’re from some parts of Europe), followed by ''[[ǧan#Maltcégj|ǧan]]'', which is a number large enough that you shouldn’t ever need it unless you’re counting individual atoms, but it’s something like one hundred nonillion (10³²).


Compound numbers are spoken as they are written in English, from left to right, (optionally) inserting indicators for tens, hundreds, thousands, &c., so “twenty-nine” is ''daiséþ nein'' ‘two tens nine’, while 3,587 is ''transéþ fremsám relkséþ dan'' ‘three tens five hundreds eight tens seven, or thirty-five hundred eighty-seven’. Easier still, and less subject to misinterpretation, the numbers can simply be read from left to right, as in ''tran frem relk dan'' ‘three five eight seven’. These are all correct, just as it’s correct in English to say “three thousand five hundred eighty-seven,” “thirty-five hundred and eighty-seven,” “thirty-five eighty-seven,” or even (somewhat less correctly) “three five eight seven.”   
Compound numbers are spoken as they are written in English, from left to right, (optionally) inserting indicators for tens, hundreds, thousands, &c., so “twenty-nine” is ''[[daiséþ#Maltcégj|daiséþ]] [[nein#Maltcégj|nein]]'' ‘two tens nine’, while 3,587 is ''[[transéþ#Maltcégj|transéþ]] [[fremsám#Maltcégj|fremsám]] [[relkséþ#Maltcégj|relkséþ]] [[dan#Maltcégj|dan]]'' ‘three tens five hundreds eight tens seven, or thirty-five hundred eighty-seven’. Easier still, and less subject to misinterpretation, the numbers can simply be read from left to right, as in ''[[tran#Maltcégj|tran]] [[frem#Maltcégj|frem]] [[relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[dan#Maltcégj|dan]]'' ‘three five eight seven’. These are all correct, just as it’s correct in English to say “three thousand five hundred eighty-seven,” “thirty-five hundred and eighty-seven,” “thirty-five eighty-seven,” or even (somewhat less correctly) “three five eight seven.”   


The number “zero” should always be read as ''zo'', not ''bleg'', though the two words are interchangeable in some circumstances. When the last digit is zero, however, it should be read as “''seþ'',” or “''sam''“ if two zeros… It may sound a little strange, but we do the same thing in English. For example, 780 should be read ''dan relk seþ'' ‘seven eighty’; 7,800, ''dan relk sam'' ‘seventy-eight hundred’; 78,000, ''dan relk seþ sam'', ‘seventy-eight thousand, &c.
The number “zero” should always be read as ''[[zo#Maltcégj|zo]]'', not ''[[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]'', though the two words are interchangeable in some circumstances. When the last digit is zero, however, it should be read as “''[[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]]'',” or “''[[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''“ if two zeros… It may sound a little strange, but we do the same thing in English. For example, 780 should be read ''[[dan#Maltcégj|dan]] [[relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]]'' ‘seven eighty’; 7,800, ''[[dan#Maltcégj|dan]] [[relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]'' ‘seventy-eight hundred’; 78,000, ''[[dan#Maltcégj|dan]] [[relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[sam#Maltcégj|sam]]'', ‘seventy-eight thousand, &c.


With the exception of the number ‘one’, the particle ''gji'' indicates ordinality, much like the suffix ''-th'' for numbers 4 – 10 in English. Any number ending in ‘one’ takes the ordinal ''adám'', just as we say first and second in English rather than ''**oneth'' or ''**twoth''.
With the exception of the number ‘one’, the particle ''[[gji#Maltcégj|gji]]'' indicates ordinality, much like the suffix ''-th'' for numbers 4 – 10 in English. Any number ending in ‘one’ takes the ordinal ''[[adám#Maltcégj|adám]]'', just as we say first and second in English rather than ''**oneth'' or ''**twoth''.


Maltcégj uses the particle ''ak'' before a noun to indicate that it is plural, but this particle is not used when a number is present.  For example, ‘book’ is ''klag'', ‘books’ is ''aklág'', but ‘two books’ is ''klag dai'' (no ''ak''). (See [[Maltcégj#Nouns]] for more on the use of the plural.)
Maltcégj uses the particle ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' before a noun to indicate that it is plural, but this particle is not used when a number is present.  For example, ‘book’ is ''[[klag#Maltcégj|klag]]'', ‘books’ is ''[[aklág#Maltcégj|aklág]]'', but ‘two books’ is ''[[klag#Maltcégj|klag]] [[dai#Maltcégj|dai]]'' (no ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]]''). (See '''[[#Nouns|Nouns]]''' for more on the use of the plural.)


If using decimals in numbers, the word ''dat'' is used to mean ‘point’ or ‘dot’, though it literally means ‘seed’ or ‘egg’.
If using decimals in numbers, the word ''[[dat#Maltcégj|dat]]'' is used to mean ‘point’ or ‘dot’, though it literally means ‘seed’ or ‘egg’.


== Articles & Determiners ==
== Articles & Determiners ==


Maltcégj has no definite article, and the indefinite article ''am'' is only used to specifically represent the number ‘one’. Its use of articles in this respect is very similar to Latin or Russian; definiteness is only expressed using the terms ''úli'' ‘this’, ''úla'' ‘that’, and ''úlot'', ‘that (other) yonder’ (or, respectively, the proximal, medial, and distal deixes). There are additional deixes which are used primarily for discussing time (see Pro-Forms).
Maltcégj has no definite article, and the indefinite article  
''[[am#Maltcégj|am]]'' is only used to specifically represent the number ‘one’. Its use of articles in this respect is very similar to Latin or Russian; definiteness is only expressed using the terms  
''[[úli#Maltcégj|úli]]'' ‘this’,  
''[[úla#Maltcégj|úla]]'' ‘that’, and  
''[[úlot#Maltcégj|úlot]]'', ‘that (other) yonder’ (or, respectively, the proximal, medial, and distal deixes). There are additional deixes which are used úlot for discussing time (see Pro-Forms).


=== Correlatives and Pro-Forms ===
=== Correlatives and Pro-Forms ===
Line 440: Line 799:
Most of the pro-forms in Maltcégj stem from combinations of common words, such as ‘this’ + ‘time’, meaning ‘now’, or ‘that’ + ‘thing’ meaning ‘that’. However, it is important to note some historical changes to the language to fully understand how the current forms came to be as they are.
Most of the pro-forms in Maltcégj stem from combinations of common words, such as ‘this’ + ‘time’, meaning ‘now’, or ‘that’ + ‘thing’ meaning ‘that’. However, it is important to note some historical changes to the language to fully understand how the current forms came to be as they are.


Maltcégj is a head-initial language, like modern Japanese, but the language family from which it is descended, Baraqesh, was head-final, like most modern Indo-European languages. That is to say that forms like ‘who’ (‘which person’) were originally in the order in which we use them in English today, but eventually reversed in the grammar (‘person which’). However, before this reversal occurred, many forms were contracted, particularly those with ''mlau'' ‘what’, so there is a duality of some seemingly unrelated forms. For example, ‘when’ (‘what’ + ‘time’) can be both ''ðláimlau'' (literally ‘time-what’) and ''mlai'', a contraction of an earlier ''*mlauðlai''.
Maltcégj is a head-initial language, like modern Japanese, but the language family from which it is descended, Baraqesh, was head-final, like most modern Indo-European languages. That is to say that forms like ‘who’ (‘which person’) were originally in the order in which we use them in English today, but eventually reversed in the grammar (‘person which’). However, before this reversal occurred, many forms were contracted, particularly those with  
''[[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]]'' ‘what’, so there is a duality of some seemingly unrelated forms. For example, ‘when’ (‘what’ + ‘time’) can be both  
''[[ðláimlau#Maltcégj|ðláimlau]]'' (literally ‘time-what’) and
''[[mlai#Maltcégj|mlai]]'', a contraction of an earlier  
''*mlauðlai''.


The deixes ''ja'', ''la'', and ''þa'' always precede the noun they modify, even when they are used independently. (For more information on these, see Measurement of Time.)
The deixes  
''[[ja#Maltcégj|ja]]'',  
''[[la#Maltcégj|la]]'', and  
''[[þa#Maltcégj|þa]]'' always precede the noun they modify, even when they are used independently. (For more information on these, see Measurement of Time.)


Still other forms have no relation to the base form, but are listed here for convenience.
Still other forms have no relation to the base form, but are listed here for convenience.
Line 450: Line 816:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!! Interrogative !! Relative !! Negative
!   
! Interrogative  
! Relative  
! Negative
|-
|-
| Base forms: || <center>''mlau'' (‘what’)</center> || <center>''kalk'' (‘that, which’)</center> || <center>''bleg'' (‘no’)</center>
! Base forms:  
! ''[[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]]'' (‘what’)
! ''[[kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘that, which’)  
! ''[[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]'' (‘no’)
|-
|-
| '''''lað''''' (‘person’) || ''lað mlau, mlað'' (‘who’) || ''klað, kalk'' (‘who’) || ''lað bleg, blað'' (‘no one’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]]'' (‘person’)  
| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlað#Maltcégj|mlað]]'' (‘who’)  
| ''[[klað#Maltcégj|klað]], [[kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘who’)  
| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[blað#Maltcégj|blað]]'' (‘no one’)
|-
|-
| '''''lak''''' (‘agent’) || ''lak mlau, mlak'' (‘what’) || ''klak, kalk'' (‘that’) || ''lak bleg, blak'' (‘nothing’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]]'' (‘agent’)  
| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlak#Maltcégj|mlak]]'' (‘what’)  
| ''[[klak#Maltcégj|klak]], [[kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘that’)  
| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[blak#Maltcégj|blak]]'' (‘nothing’)
|-
|-
| '''''ðrax''''' (‘thing’) || ''ðrax mlau, mlax'' (‘what’) || ''klax, kalk'' (‘which’) || ''ðrax bleg, blax'' (‘nothing’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]]'' (‘thing’)  
| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlax#Maltcégj|mlax]]'' (‘what’)  
| ''[[klax#Maltcégj|klax]], [[kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘which’)  
| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[blax#Maltcégj|blax]]'' (‘nothing’)
|-
|-
| '''''arán''''' (‘place’) || ''arán mlau, mlarán'' (‘where’) || ''klarán'' (‘where’) || ''arán bleg, bláran'' (‘nowhere’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[arán#Maltcégj|arán]]'' (‘place’)  
| ''[[arán#Maltcégj|arán]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlarán#Maltcégj|mlarán]]'' (‘where’)  
| ''[[klarán#Maltcégj|klarán]]'' (‘where’)  
| ''[[arán#Maltcégj|arán]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[bláran#Maltcégj|bláran]]'' (‘nowhere’)
|-
|-
| '''''ðlai''''' (‘time’) || ''ðlai mlau, mlai'' (‘when’) || ''klai'' (‘when’) || ''ðlai bleg, blai<sup>2</sup>'' (‘never’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]'' (‘time’)  
| ''[[ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlai#Maltcégj|mlai]]'' (‘when’)  
| ''[[klai#Maltcégj|klai]]'' (‘when’)  
| ''[[ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[blai#Maltcégj|blai]]''<ref>While ''[[blai#Maltcégj|blai]]'' may still be found in some texts, it is not generally used due to its homophonous relationship with the progressive particle (see [[#Verbs|Verbs]]).</ref> (‘never’)
|-
|-
| '''''kþið''''' (‘manner’) || ''kþið mlau, mlið'' (‘how’) || ''klið'' (‘how’) || ''kþið bleg, blið'' (‘no way’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]]'' (‘manner’)  
| ''[[kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlið#Maltcégj|mlið]]'' (‘how’)  
| ''[[klið#Maltcégj|klið]]'' (‘how’)  
| ''[[kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[blið#Maltcégj|blið]]'' (‘no way’)
|-
|-
| '''''mára''''' (‘quantity’) || ''mára mlau, mlára'' (‘how much/many’) || ''klára'' (‘how much/many’) || ''mára bleg, blára'' (‘none’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]]'' (‘quantity’)  
| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[mlára#Maltcégj|mlára]]'' (‘how much/many’)  
| ''[[klára#Maltcégj|klára]]'' (‘how much/many’)  
| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[blára#Maltcégj|blára]]'' (‘none’)
|-
|-
| '''''hímiem<sup>1</sup>''''' (‘reason’) || ''mlímiem'' (‘why’) || ''klímiem'' (‘why’) || ''blímiem'' (‘for no reason’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]''<ref>The word ''[[hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]'' (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, ''[[frulúþ#Maltcégj|frulúþ]]''.</ref> (‘reason’)  
| ''[[mlímiem#Maltcégj|mlímiem]]'' (‘why’)  
| ''[[klímiem#Maltcégj|klímiem]]'' (‘why’)  
| ''[[blímiem#Maltcégj|blímiem]]'' (‘for no reason’)
|-
|-
!! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal
!   
! Proximal  
! Medial  
! Distal
|-
|-
| Base forms: || <center>''jála, úli'' (‘this’)</center> || <center>''ðóra, úla'' (‘that’)</center> || <center>''þa, ulót'' (‘yonder’)</center>
! Base forms:  
! ''[[jála#Maltcégj|jála]], [[úli#Maltcégj|úli]]'' (‘this’)
! ''[[ðóra#Maltcégj|ðóra]], [[úla#Maltcégj|úla]]'' (‘that’)
! ''[[þa#Maltcégj|þa]], [[ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]]'' (‘yonder’)
|-
|-
| '''''lað''''' (‘person’) || ''lað úli, jlað'' (‘this person’) || ''lað úla, ðrað'' (‘that person’) || ''lað ulót, þlað'' (‘the other person’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]]'' (‘person’)  
| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[jlað#Maltcégj|jlað]]'' (‘this person’)  
| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[ðrað#Maltcégj|ðrað]]'' (‘that person’)  
| ''[[lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]], [[þlað#Maltcégj|þlað]]'' (‘the other person’)
|-
|-
| '''''lak''''' (‘agent’) || ''lak úli, jlak'' (‘this thing’) || ''lak úla, ðrak'' (‘that thing’) || ''lak ulót, þlak'' (‘the other thing’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]]'' (‘agent’)  
| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[jlak#Maltcégj|jlak]]'' (‘this thing’)  
| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[ðrak#Maltcégj|ðrak]]'' (‘that thing’)  
| ''[[lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]], [[þlak#Maltcégj|þlak]]'' (‘the other thing’)
|-
|-
| '''''ðrax''''' (‘thing’) || ''ðrax úli, jlax'' (‘this’) || ''ðrax úla, ðrax'' (‘that’) || ''ðrax ulót, þlax'' (‘that (other)’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]]'' (‘thing’)  
| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[jlax#Maltcégj|jlax]]'' (‘this’)  
| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]]'' (‘that’)  
| ''[[ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]], [[þlax#Maltcégj|þlax]]'' (‘that (other)’)
|-
|-
| '''''arán''''' (‘place’) || ''jarán, jlarán<sup>3</sup>'' (‘here’) || ''larán, ðrarán'' (‘there’) || ''þarán'' (‘up there, ahead’), '' þrarán'' (‘elsewhere’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[arán#Maltcégj|arán]]'' (‘place’)  
| ''[[jarán#Maltcégj|jarán]], [[jlarán#Maltcégj|jlarán]]''<ref>''[[jláran#Maltcégj|jláran]]'' is gradually becoming obsolete and has been broadly replaced by ''[[járan#Maltcégj|járan]]''.</ref> (‘here’)  
| ''[[larán#Maltcégj|larán]], [[ðrarán#Maltcégj|ðrarán]]'' (‘there’)  
| ''[[þarán#Maltcégj|þarán]]'' (‘up there, ahead’), '' [[þrarán#Maltcégj|þrarán]]'' (‘elsewhere’)
|-
|-
| '''''ðlai''''' (‘time’) || ''jaðlai, jlai, nak'' (‘now’) || ''laðlai, ðraðlai, nos'' (‘then’) || ''þaðlai'' (‘in the future’), ''þraðlái'' (‘some other time’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]'' (‘time’)  
| ''[[jaðlai#Maltcégj|jaðlai]], [[jlai#Maltcégj|jlai]], [[nak#Maltcégj|nak]]'' (‘now’)  
| ''[[laðlai#Maltcégj|laðlai]], [[ðraðlai#Maltcégj|ðraðlai]], [[nos#Maltcégj|nos]]'' (‘then’)  
| ''[[þaðlai#Maltcégj|þaðlai]]'' (‘in the future’), ''[[þraðlái#Maltcégj|þraðlái]]'' (‘some other time’)
|-
|-
| '''''kþið''''' (‘manner’) || ''kþið úli, jlið'' (‘like this’) || ''kþið úla, ðrið'' (‘like that’) || ''þkíð'' (‘some other way’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]]'' (‘manner’)  
| ''[[kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[jlið#Maltcégj|jlið]]'' (‘like this’)  
| ''[[kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[ðrið#Maltcégj|ðrið]]'' (‘like that’)  
| ''[[þkíð#Maltcégj|þkíð]]'' (‘some other way’)
|-
|-
| '''''mára''''' (‘quantity’) || ''mára úli, márað'' (‘this much’) || ''mára úla, márað'' (‘that much’) || ''mára ulót'' (‘that other amount’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]]'' (‘quantity’)  
| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[márað#Maltcégj|márað]]'' (‘this much’)  
| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[márað#Maltcégj|márað]]'' (‘that much’)  
| ''[[mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]]'' (‘that other amount’)
|-
|-
| '''''hímiem<sup>1</sup>''''' (‘reason’) ||colspan=2| ''ðrímiem'' (‘because’) || ''þrímiem'' (‘for that reason’)
!style="text-align:right"| ''[[hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]<ref>The word ''[[hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]'' (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, ''[[frulúþ#Maltcégj|frulúþ]]''.</ref>'' (‘reason’)  
|colspan=2| ''[[ðrímiem#Maltcégj|ðrímiem]]'' (‘because’)  
| ''[[þrímiem#Maltcégj|þrímiem]]'' (‘for that reason’)
|-
|-
|}
|}
<sup>1</sup> The word ''hímiem'' (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, ''frulúþ''.
<sup>2</sup> While ''blai'' may still be found in some texts, it is not generally used due to its homophonous relationship with the progressive particle (see [[Maltcégj#Verbs|Verbs]]).
<sup>3</sup> ''jláran'' is gradually becoming obsolete and has been broadly replaced by ''járan''.


== Nouns ==
== Nouns ==


Maltcégj nouns are relatively straight-forward.  They do not inflect for case or number. Nouns are always the first word in a noun phrase (that is, they precede adjectives and adpositions), though genitive constructions may be constructed in ways that may seem contrary to this assertion (more on the genitive under [[Maltcégj#Adpositions|Adpositions]]).
Maltcégj nouns are relatively straight-forward.  They do not inflect for case or number. Nouns are always the first word in a noun phrase (that is, they precede adjectives and adpositions), though genitive constructions may be constructed in ways that may seem contrary to this assertion (more on the genitive under [[#Adpositions|Adpositions]]).


Nouns with two syllables which may double as verbs tend to have initial stress while the verb form has final stress, but this tendency is by no means a rule.
Nouns with two syllables which may double as verbs tend to have initial stress while the verb form has final stress, but this tendency is by no means a rule.
Line 506: Line 925:
=== Indicating Plurality ===
=== Indicating Plurality ===


While there is no specific plural form of nouns, there is a plural particle, ''ak-'', which can be optionally prefixed to the noun stem to specify plurality. ''ak-'' is never used when a number is present or any other indicator that would already imply a plural.
While there is no specific plural form of nouns, there is a plural particle, ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak-]]'', which can be optionally prefixed to the noun stem to specify plurality. ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak-]]'' is never used when a number is present or any other indicator that would already imply a plural.


For example:
For example:


''téfʌðu'' ‘table’<br>
''[[téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]]'' ‘table’<br />
'''''ak'''téfʌðu'' ‘tables’<br>
'''''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'''[[téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]]'' ‘tables’<br />
''téfʌðu jamp'' ‘four tables’<br>
''[[téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]] [[jamp#Maltcégj|jamp]]'' ‘four tables’<br />
''téfʌðu lexét'' ‘many tables’
''[[téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]] [[lexét#Maltcégj|lexét]]'' ‘many tables’


== Adpositions ==
== Adpositions ==


Adpositions in Maltcégj are generally suffixed to the nouns they modify. They undergo very little inflection (so it is not considered a case system per se), but there is some variation in some nouns which end in vowels, as shown below. (Nouns can only end in the vowels <nowiki><i></nowiki>, <a>, <ǫ>, <o>, and <nowiki><u></nowiki>. Nouns cannot end in <e> or <y>. Nouns ending in <ʌ> take regular consonant endings except before ''-ʌ'' and ''-ʌk'', where the final <ʌ> of the noun becomes <l>. Nouns ending in <ʀ> take regular consonant endings except before ''-ʀ'', which becomes ''-hʀ''. Most changes, however, simply involve adding an epenthetic <h> before the prefix or adding a diæresis or dot to the vowel of the adposition.
Adpositions in Maltcégj are generally suffixed to the nouns they modify. They undergo very little inflection (so it is not considered a case system per se), but there is some variation in some nouns which end in vowels, as shown below. (Nouns can only end in the vowels 〈i〉, 〈a〉, 〈ǫ〉, 〈o〉, and 〈u〉. Nouns cannot end in 〈e〉 or 〈y〉. Nouns ending in 〈ʌ〉 take regular consonant endings except before ''-ʌ'' and ''-ʌk'', where the final 〈ʌ〉 of the noun becomes 〈l〉. Nouns ending in 〈ʀ〉 take regular consonant endings except before ''[[-ʀ#Maltcégj|]]'', which becomes ''-hʀ''. Most changes, however, simply involve adding an epenthetic 〈h〉 before the prefix or adding a diæresis or dot to the vowel of the adposition.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! C#-   !! [i]#-   !! [a,ǫ]#-   !! [o,u]#-   !! Example !! Preposition Type !! Eng. !! Ger. !! Lat. !! Esp. !! Notes
! C#-  
! [i]#-  
! [a,ǫ]#-  
! [o,u]#-  
! Example  
! Preposition Type  
! Eng.  
! Ger.  
! Lat.  
! Esp.  
! Notes
|-
|-
| '''''-''''' || ''-i- '' || ''-a-'' || ''-o- '' || ''ek klag gnir.''<brThe book is green.’ || Nominative || - || (''Nom.'') || (''Nom.'') || - || Subject.
| '''''-'''''  
| ''-i- ''  
| ''-a-''  
| ''-o- ''  
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[klag#Maltcégj|klag]] [[gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]].''<br />The book is green.’  
| Nominative  
| -  
| (''Nom.'')  
| (''Nom.'')  
| -  
| Subject.
|-
|-
| '''''a''''' || ''-iȧ '' || ''-aha'' || ''-oȧ '' || ''dydkulóm jǫg klág'''a'''.''<br>‘I saw '''the book'''.’ || Accusative || - || (''Acc.'') || (''Acc.'') || -n || Direct object.
| '''''[[-a#Maltcégj|a]]'''''  
| ''-iȧ ''  
| ''-aha''  
| ''-oȧ ''  
| ''[[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]][[kulóm#Maltcégj|kulóm]] [[jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]] [[klag#Maltcégj|klág]]'''[[-a#Maltcégj|a]]'''.''<br />‘I saw '''the book'''.’  
| Accusative  
| -  
| (''Acc.'')  
| (''Acc.'')  
| -n  
| Direct object.
|-
|-
| '''''að''''' || ''-iȧð '' || ''-ahað'' || ''-oȧð '' || ‘to the book’ || Dative || to || zu (+ ''Dat.'') || ad || al || Indirect object.
| '''''[[-að#Maltcégj|]]'''''  
| ''-iȧð ''  
| ''-ahað''  
| ''-oȧð ''  
| ‘to the book’  
| Dative  
| to  
| zu (+ ''Dat.'')  
| ad  
| al  
| Indirect object.
|-
|-
| '''''ai''''' || ''-iȧi '' || ''-ahai'' || ''-oȧi '' || ‘through (the middle of) the book’ || Perlative || through || durch (+ ''Acc.'') || per ||  ||
| '''''[[-ai#Maltcégj|ai]]'''''  
| ''-iȧi ''  
| ''-ahai''  
| ''-oȧi ''  
| ‘through (the middle of) the book’  
| Perlative  
| through  
| durch (+ ''Acc.'')  
| per  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''aj''''' || ''-iȧj '' || ''-ahaj'' || ''-oȧj '' || ‘during/throughout the book’ || Temporal Durative || during || während (+ ''Gen.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-aj#Maltcégj|aj]]'''''  
| ''-iȧj ''  
| ''-ahaj''  
| ''-oȧj ''  
| ‘during/throughout the book’  
| Temporal Durative  
| during  
| während (+ ''Gen.'')  
|  
| dum
|
|-
|-
| '''''ala''''' || ''-iȧla '' || ''-ahala'' || ''-oȧla '' || ‘between the books’ || Intrative || between, among || zwischen, unter (+ ''Dat.'') || inter ||  || Automatically implies plural.
| '''''[[-ala#Maltcégj|ala]]'''''  
| ''-iȧla ''  
| ''-ahala''  
| ''-oȧla ''  
| ‘between the books’  
| Intrative  
| between, among  
| zwischen, unter (+ ''Dat.'')  
| inter  
|  
| Automatically implies plural.
|-
|-
| '''''alm''''' || ''-iȧlm '' || ''-ahalm'' || ''-oȧlm '' || ‘without the book’ || Abesso-caritive || without || ohne (+ ''Acc.'') || sine ||  ||
| '''''[[-am#Maltcégj|alm]]'''''  
| ''-iȧlm ''  
| ''-ahalm''  
| ''-oȧlm ''  
| ‘without the book’  
| Abesso-caritive  
| without  
| ohne (+ ''Acc.'')  
| sine  
| sen
|
|-
|-
| '''''alx''''' || ''-iȧlx '' || ''-ahalx'' || ''-oȧlx '' || ‘on (the side of) the book’ || Adessive || on || an (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-alx#Maltcégj|alx]]'''''  
| ''-iȧlx ''  
| ''-ahalx''  
| ''-oȧlx ''  
| ‘on (the side of) the book’  
| Adessive  
| on  
| an (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''ap''''' || ''-iȧp '' || ''-ahap'' || ''-oȧp '' || ‘on (top of) the book’ || Superessive || on || auf (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-ap#Maltcégj|ap]]'''''  
| ''-iȧp ''  
| ''-ahap''  
| ''-oȧp ''  
| ‘on (top of) the book’  
| Superessive  
| on  
| auf (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
| sur
|
|-
|-
| '''''arak''''' || ''-iȧrak '' || ''-aharak'' || ''-oȧrak'' || ‘(leaning) against the book’ || Revertive || against || gegen (+ ''Acc.'') || versus ||  ||
| '''''[[-arak#Maltcégj|arak]]'''''  
| ''-iȧrak ''  
| ''-aharak''  
| ''-oȧrak''  
| ‘(leaning) against the book’  
| Revertive  
| against  
| gegen (+ ''Acc.'')  
| versus  
| kontraux
|
|-
|-
| '''''av''''' || ''-iȧv '' || ''-ahav'' || ''-oȧv '' || ‘after the book’ || Postessive || following || folgend, zunächst || post ||  ||
| '''''[[-av#Maltcégj|av]]'''''  
| ''-iȧv ''  
| ''-ahav''  
| ''-oȧv ''  
| ‘after the book’  
| Postessive  
| following  
| folgend, zunächst  
| post
| post
|
|-
|-
| '''''eð''''' || ''-iëð '' || ''-aheð'' || ''-oëð '' || ‘around the book’ || Circumessive || around || um (+ ''Acc.'') || circum ||  ||
| '''''[[-eð#Maltcégj|]]'''''  
| ''-iëð ''  
| ''-aheð''  
| ''-oëð ''  
| ‘around the book’  
| Circumessive  
| around  
| um (+ ''Acc.'')  
| circum  
| cxirkaux
|
|-
|-
| '''''eki''''' || ''-iëki '' || ''-aheki'' || ''-oëki '' || ‘up to/until the book’ || Allato-terminative || until || bis (+ ''Acc.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-eki#Maltcégj|eki]]'''''  
| ''-iëki ''  
| ''-aheki''  
| ''-oëki ''  
| ‘up to/until the book’  
| Allato-terminative  
| until  
| bis (+ ''Acc.'')  
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''eloï''''' || ''-iëloï '' || ''-aheloï'' || ''-oëloï'' || ‘about/concerning the book’ ||  || about || über (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-eloï#Maltcégj|eloï]]'''''  
| ''-iëloï ''  
| ''-aheloï''  
| ''-oëloï''  
| ‘about/concerning the book’  
|  
| about  
| über (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
| pri
|
|-
|-
| '''''em''''' || ''-iëm '' || ''-ahem'' || ''-oëm '' || ‘over/above the book’ ||  || over || über (+ ''Dat.'') || supra ||  ||
| '''''[[-em#Maltcégj|em]]'''''  
| ''-iëm ''  
| ''-ahem''  
| ''-oëm ''  
| ‘over/above the book’  
|  
| over  
| über (+ ''Dat.'')  
| supra  
| super
|
|-
|-
| '''''ei''''' || ''-iëi '' || ''-ahei'' || ''-oëi '' || ‘in the book’ || Inessive || in || in (+ ''Dat.'') || in(tra) ||  ||
| '''''[[-ei#Maltcégj|ei]]'''''  
| ''-iëi ''  
| ''-ahei''  
| ''-oëi ''  
| ‘in the book’  
| Inessive  
| in  
| in (+ ''Dat.'')  
| in(tra)  
| en
|
|-
|-
| '''''fra''''' || ''-ifra '' || ''-afra'' || ''-ofra '' || ‘with books’ (as in ‘strewn’) ||  || with || mit (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-fra#Maltcégj|fra]]'''''  
| ''-ifra ''  
| ''-afra''  
| ''-ofra ''  
| ‘with books’ (as in ‘strewn’)  
|  
| with  
| mit (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
| kun
|
|-
|-
| '''''i''''' || ''-ihi '' || ''-ahi'' || ''-oï '' || ‘for the book’ || Benefactive || for || für (+ ''Acc.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-i#Maltcégj|i]]'''''  
| ''-ihi ''  
| ''-ahi''  
| ''-oï ''  
| ‘for the book’  
| Benefactive  
| for  
| für (+ ''Acc.'')  
|  
| por
|
|-
|-
| '''''ið''''' || ''-ihið '' || ''-ahið'' || ''-oïð '' || ‘before/prior to the book’ || Temporal || before || bevor (+ ''Dat.'') || ante ||  ||
| '''''[[-ið#Maltcégj|]]'''''  
| ''-ihið ''  
| ''-ahið''  
| ''-oïð ''  
| ‘before/prior to the book’  
| Temporal  
| before  
| bevor (+ ''Dat.'')  
| ante  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''ij''''' || ''-ihij '' || ''-ahij'' || ''-oïj '' || ‘after the books’ || Temporal || after, according to || nach (+ ''Dat.'') || secundum || post  ||
| '''''[[-ij#Maltcégj|ij]]'''''  
| ''-ihij ''  
| ''-ahij''  
| ''-oïj ''  
| ‘after the books’  
| Temporal  
| after, according to  
| nach (+ ''Dat.'')  
| secundum  
| laux
|
|-
|-
| '''''ili''''' || ''-ihili '' || ''-ahili'' || ''-oïli'' || ‘next to/beside/near the book’ || Apudessive || next to || neben (+ ''Dat.'') || prope ||  ||
| '''''[[-ili#Maltcégj|ili]]'''''  
| ''-ihili ''  
| ''-ahili''  
| ''-oïli''  
| ‘next to/beside/near the book’  
| Apudessive  
| next to  
| neben (+ ''Dat.'')  
| prope  
| apud
|
|-
|-
| '''''im''''' || ''-ihim '' || ''-ahim'' || ''-oïm '' || ‘along(side) the books’ || Vialis || along || (''Dat.''+) entlang ||  || ||
| '''''[[-im#Maltcégj|im]]'''''  
| ''-ihim ''  
| ''-ahim''  
| ''-oïm ''  
| ‘along(side) the books’  
| Vialis  
| along  
| (''Dat.''+) entlang  
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''is''''' || ''-ihis '' || ''-ahis'' || ''-oïs '' || ‘instead of the book’ || Excambiative || instead of || statt (+ ''Gen.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-is#Maltcégj|is]]'''''  
| ''-ihis ''  
| ''-ahis''  
| ''-oïs ''  
| ‘instead of the book’  
| Excambiative  
| instead of  
| statt (+ ''Gen.'')  
|  
| anstataux
|
|-
|-
| '''''it''''' || ''-ihit '' || ''-ahit'' || ''-oït '' || ‘behind the book’ ||  || behind || hinter (+ ''Dat.'') || pone, post ||  ||
| '''''[[-it#Maltcégj|it]]'''''  
| ''-ihit ''  
| ''-ahit''  
| ''-oït ''  
| ‘behind the book’  
|  
| behind  
| hinter (+ ''Dat.'')  
| pone, post  
| malantaux
|
|-
|-
| '''''iþ''''' || ''-ihiþ '' || ''-ahiþ'' || ''-oïþ '' || ‘under the book’ || Subessive || under || unter (+ ''Dat.'') || subter ||  ||
| '''''[[-iþ#Maltcégj|]]'''''  
| ''-ihiþ ''  
| ''-ahiþ''  
| ''-oïþ ''  
| ‘under the book’  
| Subessive  
| under  
| unter (+ ''Dat.'')  
| subter  
| sub
|
|-
|-
| '''''lef''''' || ''-ilef '' || ''-alef'' || ''-olef '' || ‘like the books’ || Comparative || like || wie (+ ''Nom.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-lef#Maltcégj|lef]]'''''  
| ''-ilef ''  
| ''-alef''  
| ''-olef ''  
| ‘like the books’  
| Comparative  
| like  
| wie (+ ''Nom.'')  
|  
| kiel
|
|-
|-
| '''''ʌ''''' || ''-il '' || ''-al'' || ''-ol '' || ‘by the book’ || Agentive || by || von (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-ʌ#Maltcégj|ʌ]]'''''  
| ''-il ''  
| ''-al''  
| ''-ol ''  
| ‘by the book’  
| Agentive  
| by  
| von (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
| per
|
|-
|-
| '''''ʌk''''' || ''-ilk '' || ''-alk'' || ''-olk '' || ‘by means of the book’ || Instrumental || with || mit (+ ''Dat.'') || cum ||  ||
| '''''[[-ʌk#Maltcégj|ʌk]]'''''  
| ''-ilk ''  
| ''-alk''  
| ''-olk ''  
| ‘by means of the book’  
| Instrumental  
| with  
| mit (+ ''Dat.'')  
| cum  
| per
|
|-
|-
| '''''o''''' || ''-iȯ '' || ''-aho'' || ''-ohȯ '' || ‘from the book’ || Delative || from || von (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-o#Maltcégj|o]]'''''  
| ''-iȯ ''  
| ''-aho''  
| ''-oho ''  
| ‘from the book’  
| Delative  
| from  
| von (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
| de
|
|-
|-
| '''''oc''''' || ''-iȯc '' || ''-ahoc'' || ''-ohȯc '' || ‘at the time of the book’ || Temporal || at the time of || an (+ ''Acc.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-oc#Maltcégj|oc]]'''''  
| ''-iȯc ''  
| ''-ahoc''  
| ''-ohoc ''  
| ‘at the time of the book’  
| Temporal  
| at the time of  
| an (+ ''Acc.'')  
|  
| cxe
|
|-
|-
| '''''ok''''' || ''-iȯk '' || ''-ahok'' || ''-ohȯk '' || ‘with the book’ || Commitative || with || mit (+ ''Dat.'') || simul ||  ||
| '''''[[-ok#Maltcégj|ok]]'''''  
| ''-iȯk ''  
| ''-ahok''  
| ''-ohȯk ''  
| ‘with the book’  
| Commitative  
| with  
| mit (+ ''Dat.'')  
| simul  
| kun
|
|-
|-
| '''''ol''''' || ''-iȯl '' || ''-ahol'' || ''-ohȯl '' || ‘except for the book’ || Exclusive || except for || außer (+ ''Dat.'') ||  || ||
| '''''[[-ol#Maltcégj|ol]]'''''  
| ''-iȯl ''  
| ''-ahol''  
| ''-ohȯl ''  
| ‘except for the book’  
| Exclusive  
| except for  
| außer (+ ''Dat.'')  
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''om''''' || ''-iȯm '' || ''-ahom'' || ''-ohȯm '' || ‘in front of the book’ ||  || in front of || vor (+ ''Dat.'') || prae ||  ||
| '''''[[-om#Maltcégj|om]]'''''  
| ''-iȯm ''  
| ''-ahom''  
| ''-ohȯm ''  
| ‘in front of the book’  
|  
| in front of  
| vor (+ ''Dat.'')  
| prae  
| antaux
|
|-
|-
| '''''ǫg''''' || ''-iǫ̇g '' || ''-ahǫg'' || ''-ohǫ̇g '' || ‘anti-book’ || Contrative || against, anti || wider (+ ''Acc.''), -feindlich || contra ||  ||
| '''''[[-ǫg#Maltcégj|ǫg]]'''''  
| ''-iǫ̇g ''  
| ''-ahǫg''  
| ''-ohǫ̇g ''  
| ‘anti-book’  
| Contrative  
| against, anti  
| wider (+ ''Acc.''), -feindlich  
| contra  
| kontraux
|
|-
|-
| '''''ʀ''''' || ''-ihʀ '' || ''-ahʀ'' || ''-ohʀ '' || ‘pro-book’ ||  || for, pro || pro- (+ ''Acc.''), -freundlich || pro ||  ||
| '''''[[-ʀ#Maltcégj|ʀ]]'''''  
| ''-ihʀ ''  
| ''-ahʀ''  
| ''-ohʀ ''  
| ‘pro-book’  
|  
| for, pro  
| pro- (+ ''Acc.''), -freundlich  
| pro  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''ul''''' || ''-iu̇l '' || ''-ahul'' || ''-ou̇l '' || ‘(made) of books’ || Exessive || made from || aus (+ ''Dat.'') || ex ||  ||
| '''''[[-ul#Maltcégj|ul]]'''''  
| ''-iu̇l ''  
| ''-ahul''  
| ''-ou̇l ''  
| ‘(made) of books’  
| Exessive  
| made from  
| aus (+ ''Dat.'')  
| ex  
| el
|
|-
|-
| '''''ut''''' || ''-iu̇t '' || ''-ahut'' || ''-ou̇t '' || ‘out of the book’ || Elative || out of || aus (+ ''Dat.'') || ex ||  ||
| '''''[[-ut#Maltcégj|ut]]'''''  
| ''-iu̇t ''  
| ''-ahut''  
| ''-ou̇t ''  
| ‘out of the book’  
| Elative  
| out of  
| aus (+ ''Dat.'')  
| ex  
| el
|
|-
|-
| '''''vul''''' || ''-ivul '' || ''-avul'' || ''-ovul '' || ‘because of the book’ || Causal || because of || wegen (+ ''Gen.'') || propter ||  ||
| '''''[[-vul#Maltcégj|vul]]'''''  
| ''-ivul ''  
| ''-avul''  
| ''-ovul ''  
| ‘because of the book’  
| Causal  
| because of  
| wegen (+ ''Gen.'')  
| propter  
| pro
|
|-
|-
| '''''u''''' || ''uï-'' || ''uȧ-'' || ''uȯ- '' || ‘-’s book, the book belonging to’ || Possessed || ‘s, of || (''Gen.''), von || (''Gen.'') ||  ||
| '''''[[u-#Maltcégj|u]]'''''  
| ''uï-''  
| ''uȧ-''  
| ''uȯ- ''  
| ‘-’s book, the book belonging to’  
| Possessed  
| ‘s, of  
| (''Gen.''), von  
| (''Gen.'')  
| de
|
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 609: Line 1,428:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| wíðoc || calíc
| [[wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]]
| [[calíc#Maltcégj|calíc]]
|-
|-
| sky || blue
| sky  
| blue
|-
|-
|colspan=2| ‘blue sky’
|colspan=2| ‘blue sky’
Line 620: Line 1,441:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ''ek'' || ''gnída'' || ''gnir'' ||rowspan=2| (or) || ''gnir'' || ''gnída''
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]]''  
| ''[[gnída#Maltcégj|gnída]]''  
| ''[[gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]]''  
|rowspan=2| (or)  
| ''[[gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]]''  
| ''[[gnída#Maltcégj|gnída]]''
|-
|-
| is|| grass || green || is-green|| grass
| is
| grass  
| green  
| is-green
| grass
|-
|-
|colspan=6| ‘The grass is green.’
|colspan=6| ‘The grass is green.’
Line 633: Line 1,463:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ''narán'' || most, -est
| ''[[narán#Maltcégj|narán]]''  
| most, -est
|-
|-
| ''nan'' || more, -er
| ''[[nan#Maltcégj|nan]]''  
| more, -er
|-
|-
| ''amán'' || as…as, as much, equally
| ''[[amán#Maltcégj|amán]]''  
| as…as, as much, equally
|-
|-
| ''pan'' || less
| ''[[pan#Maltcégj|pan]]''  
| less
|-
|-
| ''palán'' || least
| ''[[palán#Maltcégj|palán]]''  
| least
|-
|-
|}
|}


All of these words precede the adjectives they modify, unless the adjective is used explicitly as a verb, and therefore the subject of the sentence. It is not uncommon or incorrect in this case to use ''ek'' as the verb and to treat the adjective as the object. When comparing the qualities of a specific noun, the postposition ''að'' is used as we would use “than” in English (or “as” when used with ''amán'').  
All of these words precede the adjectives they modify, unless the adjective is used explicitly as a verb, and therefore the subject of the sentence. It is not uncommon or incorrect in this case to use ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]]'' as the verb and to treat the adjective as the object. When comparing the qualities of a specific noun, the postposition ''[[#Maltcégj|að]]'' is used as we would use “than” in English (or “as” when used with ''[[amán#Maltcégj|amán]]'').  


When any of these are used in combination with an adjective that begins with /b/ or /p/, the final /n/ changes to /m/, e.g. ''pan''+''bjólet''=''pambjólet'' ‘worse’. If the adjective begins with /m/, /n/ is elided entirely, e.g. ''nan''+''mot''=''namót'' ‘emptier’. (See Phonology.)
When any of these are used in combination with an adjective that begins with /b/ or /p/, the final /n/ changes to /m/, e.g. ''[[pan#Maltcégj|pan]]''+''[[bjólet#Maltcégj|bjólet]]''=''[[pambjólet#Maltcégj|pambjólet]]'' ‘worse’. If the adjective begins with /m/, /n/ is elided entirely, e.g. ''[[nan#Maltcégj|nan]]''+''[[mot#Maltcégj|mot]]''=''[[namót#Maltcégj|namót]]'' ‘emptier’. (See Phonology.)


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Predicative !! Verbal !!  
! Predicative  
! Verbal  
!  
|-
|-
| ''ek pel akadínahað mes kúluï '''narandíð'''''<br> (is she PL-sister-than her-own all most-beautiful) || '''''dið''' pel '''narán''' akadínahað mes kúluï''<br> (is-beautiful she most PL-sister-than her-own all) || ‘She is the most beautiful of all her sisters.’
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[pel#Maltcégj|pel]] [[ak-#Maltcégj|ak]][[adína#Maltcégj|adína]][[-að#Maltcégj|hað]] [[mes#Maltcégj|mes]] [[kúluï#Maltcégj|kúluï]] '''[[narandíð#Maltcégj|narandíð]]'''''<br /> (is she PL-sister-than her-own all most-beautiful)  
| '''''[[dið#Maltcégj|dið]]''' [[pel#Maltcégj|pel]] '''[[narán#Maltcégj|narán]]''' [[ak-#Maltcégj|ak]][[adína#Maltcégj|adína]][[-að#Maltcégj|hað]] [[mes#Maltcégj|mes]] [[kúluï#Maltcégj|kúluï]]''<br /> (is-beautiful she most PL-sister-than her-own all)  
| ‘She is the most beautiful of all her sisters.’
|-
|-
| ''ek pul janád '''nambjólet'''''<br> (is he today more-good) || '''''bjólet''' pul janád '''nan'''''<br> (is-good he today more) || ‘He is better today.’
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[janád#Maltcégj|janád]] '''[[nambjólet#Maltcégj|nambjólet]]'''''<br /> (is he today more-good)  
| '''''[[bjólet#Maltcégj|bjólet]]''' [[pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[janád#Maltcégj|janád]] '''[[nan#Maltcégj|nan]]'''''<br /> (is-good he today more)  
| ‘He is better today.’
|-
|-
| ''ek paj wíðocað '''amancalíc'''''<br> (is it sky-as as-much-blue) || '''''calíc''' paj '''amán''' wíðocað''<br> (is-blue it as-much as-sky) || ‘It’s as blue as the sky.’
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[paj#Maltcégj|paj]] [[wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]][[-að#Maltcégj|að]] '''[[amán#Maltcégj|aman]][[calíc#Maltcégj|calíc]]'''''<br /> (is it sky-as as-much-blue)  
| '''''[[calíc#Maltcégj|calíc]]''' [[paj#Maltcégj|paj]] '''[[amán#Maltcégj|amán]]''' [[wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]][[-að#Maltcégj|að]]''<br /> (is-blue it as-much as-sky)  
| ‘It’s as blue as the sky.’
|-
|-
| ''ek paj vlágaranað '''panxac'''''<br> (is it school-than less-difficult) || '''''xac''' paj vlágaranað '''pan'''''<br> (is-difficult it school-than less) || It’s less difficult than school.
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[paj#Maltcégj|paj]] [[vlág#Maltcégj|vlág]][[aran#Maltcégj|aran]][[-að#Maltcégj|að]] '''[[pan#Maltcégj|pan]][[xac#Maltcégj|xac]]'''''<br /> (is it school-than less-difficult)  
| '''''[[xac#Maltcégj|xac]]''' [[paj#Maltcégj|paj]] [[vlág#Maltcégj|vlág]][[aran#Maltcégj|aran]][[-að#Maltcégj|að]] '''[[pan#Maltcégj|pan]]'''''<br /> (is-difficult it school-than less)  
| It’s less difficult than school.
|-
|-
| ''ek klag '''palambokúra'''''<br> (is book least-favorite) || '''''bokúra''' klag '''palán'''''<br> (is-favorite book least) || It’s (my) least favorite book.
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[klag#Maltcégj|klag]] '''[[palambokúra#Maltcégj|palambokúra]]'''''<br /> (is book least-favorite)  
| '''''[[bokúra#Maltcégj|bokúra]]''' [[klag#Maltcégj|klag]] '''[[palán#Maltcégj|palán]]'''''<br /> (is-favorite book least)  
| It’s (my) least favorite book.
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 675: Line 1,522:
! Particle !!  !! TAMV !! E.g.
! Particle !!  !! TAMV !! E.g.
|-
|-
| ''vrei'' || 吧 || Imperative || ''vreitcók!'' Go!
| ''[[vrei#Maltcégj|vrei]]''  
| 吧  
| Imperative  
| ''[[vrei#Maltcégj|vrei]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]]!'' Go!
|-
|-
| ''men'' || 吧,請 || Jussive || ''mentcók.'' Please go.
| ''[[men-#Maltcégj|men]]''  
| 吧,請  
| Jussive  
| ''[[men#Maltcégj|men]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]].'' Please go.
|-
|-
| ''cʌþ'' || 嗎 || Interrogative || ''cʌþ tcok mélem?''<sup>1</sup> Are you going?
| ''[[cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]]''  
| 嗎  
| Interrogative  
| ''[[cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]] [[tcok#Maltcégj|tcok]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]?''<ref>Unlike other particles, ''[[cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]]'' does not combine with the verb; it stands on its own as an individual word.</ref> Are you going?
|-
|-
| ''bleg'' || 不,沒 || Negative || ''blegtcók mélem.'' You’re not going.
| ''[[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]''  
| 不,沒  
| Negative  
| ''[[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You’re not going.
|-
|-
| ''lǫ'' || - || Subjunctive || ''lǫtcég kleg lǫtcók mélem.'' It is important that you go.
| ''[[#Maltcégj|lǫ]]''  
| -  
| Subjunctive  
| ''[[lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[lǫ#Maltcégj|lǫ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' It is important that you go.
|-
|-
| ''dyd'' || 了 || Past || ''dydtcók mélem.'' You went.
| ''[[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]]''  
| 了  
| Past  
| ''[[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You went.
|-
|-
| ''nag'' || 要 || Future || ''nagtcók mélem.'' You will go.
| ''[[nag#Maltcégj|nag]]''  
| 要  
| Future  
| ''[[nag#Maltcégj|nag]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You will go.
|-
|-
| ''dla'' || 就,剛 || Immediacy || ''(always combined with other particles – see below)''
| ''[[dla#Maltcégj|dla]]''  
| 就,剛  
| Immediacy  
| ''(always combined with other particles – see below)''
|-
|-
| ''kwarþ'' || 過 || Perfect || ''kwarþtcók mélem.'' You have gone.
| ''[[kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]]''  
| 過  
| Perfect  
| ''[[kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You have gone.
|-
|-
| ''blai'' || 正在 || Progressive || ''blaitcók mélem.'' You are (in the process of) going.
| ''[[blai#Maltcégj|blai]]''  
| 正在  
| Progressive  
| ''[[blai#Maltcégj|blai]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are (in the process of) going.
|-
|-
| ''kan'' || 還 || Continuative || ''kantcók mélem.'' You are still going.
| ''[[kan#Maltcégj|kan]]''  
| 還  
| Continuative  
| ''[[kan#Maltcégj|kan]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are still going.
|-
|-
| ''gak'' || - || Habitual || ''gaktcók mélem.'' You (often/regularly) go.
| ''[[gak#Maltcégj|gak]]''  
| -  
| Habitual  
| ''[[gak#Maltcégj|gak]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You (often/regularly) go.
|-
|-
| ''kla'' || - || Terminative || ''klatcók mélem.'' You have stopped going.
| ''[[kla#Maltcégj|kla]]''  
| -  
| Terminative  
| ''[[kla#Maltcégj|kla]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You have stopped going.
|-
|-
| ''guc'' || - || Inceptive || ''guctcók mélem.'' You have started to go.
| ''[[guc#Maltcégj|guc]]''  
| -  
| Inceptive  
| ''[[guc#Maltcégj|guc]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You have started to go.
|-
|-
| ''rak'' || 被 || Passive || ''rakulóm mélem.'' You are seen.
| ''[[rak#Maltcégj|rak]]''  
| 被  
| Passive  
| ''[[rak#Maltcégj|rak]][[kulóm#Maltcégj|ulóm]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are seen.
|-
|-
|}
|}
<sup>1</sup> Unlike other particles, ''cʌþ'' does not combine with the verb; it stands on its own as an individual word.


The particles can be used in many combinations to create new tenses, moods, and aspects, but they must always be used in the very specific order above. Some of these combinations have undergone epenthesis, creating seemingly unique particles.  Some examples:
The particles can be used in many combinations to create new tenses, moods, and aspects, but they must always be used in the very specific order above. Some of these combinations have undergone epenthesis, creating seemingly unique particles.  Some examples:
Line 715: Line 1,605:
! Particle !!  TAMV !! E.g.
! Particle !!  TAMV !! E.g.
|-
|-
| ''nakwarþ (nag + kwarth)'' || Future Perfect || ''nakwarþtcók mélem.'' You will have gone.
| ''[[nakwarþ#Maltcégj|nakwarþ]] ([[nag#Maltcégj|nag]] + [[kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]])''  
| Future Perfect  
| ''[[nakwarþ#Maltcégj|nakwarþ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You will have gone.
|-
|-
| ''nagblai'' || Future progressive || ''nagblaitcók mélem.'' You will be going.
| ''[[nagblai#Maltcégj|nagblai]]''  
| Future progressive  
| ''[[nagblai#Maltcégj|nagblai]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You will be going.
|-
|-
| ''naglǫ'' || Future subjunctive || ''lǫtcég kleg naglǫtcók mélem.'' It is important that you would go.
| ''[[naglǫ#Maltcégj|naglǫ]]''  
| Future subjunctive  
| ''[[lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[naglǫ#Maltcégj|naglǫ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' It is important that you would go.
|-
|-
| ''dydnag'' || Conditional || ''dydnagtcók mélem.'' You would go.
| ''[[dydnag#Maltcégj|dydnag]]''  
| Conditional  
| ''[[dydnag#Maltcégj|dydnag]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You would go.
|-
|-
| ''dygwarþ (dyd + kwarth)'' || Pluperfect || ''dygwarþtcók mélem.'' You had gone.
| ''[[dygwarþ#Maltcégj|dygwarþ]] ([[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]] + [[kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]])''  
| Pluperfect  
| ''[[dygwarþ#Maltcégj|dygwarþ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You had gone.
|-
|-
| ''dydblai'' || Imperfect || ''dydblaitcók mélem.'' You were going.
| ''[[dydblai#Maltcégj|dydblai]]''  
| Imperfect  
| ''[[dydblai#Maltcégj|dydblai]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You were going.
|-
|-
| ''dydlǫ'' || Past subjunctive || ''lǫtcég kleg dydlǫtcók mélem.'' It was important that you went.
| ''[[dydlǫ#Maltcégj|dydlǫ]]''  
| Past subjunctive  
| ''[[lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[dydlǫ#Maltcégj|dydlǫ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' It was important that you went.
|-
|-
| ''dydnakwarþ'' || Conditional perfect || ''dydnakwarþtcók mélem.'' You would have gone.
| ''[[dydnakwarþ#Maltcégj|dydnakwarþ]]''  
| Conditional perfect  
| ''[[dydnakwarþ#Maltcégj|dydnakwarþ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You would have gone.
|-
|-
| ''dydla (dyd + dla)'' || Immediate past || ''dydlatcók mélem.'' You just went.
| ''[[dydla#Maltcégj|dydla]] ([[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]] + [[dla#Maltcégj|dla]])''  
| Immediate past  
| ''[[dydla#Maltcégj|dydla]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You just went.
|-
|-
| ''nagdla'' || Immediate future || ''nagdlatcók mélem.'' You are about to go.
| ''[[nagdla#Maltcégj|nagdla]]''  
| Immediate future  
| ''[[nagdla#Maltcégj|nagdla]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are about to go.
|-
|-
| ''dydnagdla'' || Immediate future II || ''dydnagdlatcók mélem.'' You were about to go.
| ''[[dydnagdla#Maltcégj|dydnagdla]]''  
| Immediate future II  
| ''[[dydnagdla#Maltcégj|dydnagdla]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You were about to go.
|-
|-
| ''cleglǫ''<sup>2</sup> || Cohortative || ''cleglǫtcók mélem.'' You’d better go.
| ''[[cleglǫ#Maltcégj|cleglǫ]]''<ref>''[[cléglǫ#Maltcégj|cléglǫ]]'' is a contraction of ''[[lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[lǫ#Maltcégj|lǫ]]'' ‘it is important that’.</ref>  
| Cohortative  
| ''[[cleglǫ#Maltcégj|cleglǫ]][[tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You’d better go.
|-
|-
|}
|}
<sup>2</sup> ''cléglǫ'' is a contraction of ''lǫtcég kleg lǫ'' ‘it is important that’.


There are more, but one step at a time. You can plug many of these together, but be certain to retain the strict order:  
There are more, but one step at a time. You can plug many of these together, but be certain to retain the strict order:  


<center>vrei – men – cʌþ – bleg – cleg – lǫ – dyd – nag – dla – kwarþ – blai – kan – gak – kla – guc – rak </center>
<center>'''[[vrei#Maltcégj|vrei]] [[men#Maltcégj|men]] [[cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]] [[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]] [[cleg#Maltcégj|cleg]] [[lǫ#Maltcégj|]] [[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]] [[nag#Maltcégj|nag]] [[dla#Maltcégj|dla]] [[kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]] [[blai#Maltcégj|blai]] [[kan#Maltcégj|kan]] [[gak#Maltcégj|gak]] [[kla#Maltcégj|kla]] [[guc#Maltcégj|guc]] [[rak#Maltcégj|rak]]'''</center>


==Adverbs==
==Adverbs==
Line 751: Line 1,663:
Adverbs in Maltcégj normally immediately follow the finite verb. (The exception are adverbial phrases and temporal adverbs, which immediately follow the subject.)  
Adverbs in Maltcégj normally immediately follow the finite verb. (The exception are adverbial phrases and temporal adverbs, which immediately follow the subject.)  


In order to create adverbs from adjectives, the particle ''lef-'' is prefixed (much as one would add ''–ly'' in English or ''–ment(e)'' in the Romance languages).
In order to create adverbs from adjectives, the particle ''[[lef#Maltcégj|lef-]]'' is prefixed (much as one would add ''–ly'' in English or ''–ment(e)'' in the Romance languages).


===Measurement of Time===
===Measurement of Time===


As discussed briefly in the section on Correlatives and Pro-Forms, time words can be modified with three particles: '''''la-''''' (‘past’), '''''ja-''''' (‘present’), or '''''þa-''''' (‘future’). When combined with a noun that begins with a vowel, the ''a-'' of each prefix is dropped.   
As discussed briefly in the section on Correlatives and Pro-Forms, time words can be modified with three particles: '''''[[la#Maltcégj|la-]]''''' (‘past’), '''''[[ja#Maltcégj|ja-]]''''' (‘present’), or '''''[[þa#Maltcégj|þa-]]''''' (‘future’). When combined with a noun that begins with a vowel, the ''a-'' of each prefix is dropped.   


''ja-'' is a contraction of the older (now obsolete) proximal deixis ''jála'', which is also contracted to ''jla-'' in some of the other [[Maltcégj#Correlatives|Correlatives (see)]].  Similarly, ''þa-'' is a contraction of the distal deixis ''þúla'', which also contracts to ''þla-'' or ''þra-''. (The older medial deixis was ''ðóra'', which is unrelated to ''la-'', but still used as contracted ''ðra-'' in other Correlatives.)
''[[ja#Maltcégj|ja-]]'' is a contraction of the older (now obsolete) proximal deixis ''[[jála#Maltcégj|jála]]'', which is also contracted to ''[[jla#Maltcégj|jla-]]'' in some of the other [[#Correlatives|Correlatives (see)]].  Similarly, ''[[þa#Maltcégj|þa-]]'' is a contraction of the distal deixis ''[[þúla#Maltcégj|þúla]]'', which also contracts to ''[[þla#Maltcégj|þla-]]'' or ''[[þra#Maltcégj|þra-]]''. (The older medial deixis was ''[[ðóra#Maltcégj|ðóra]]'', which is unrelated to ''[[la#Maltcégj|la-]]'', but still used as contracted ''[[ðra#Maltcégj|ðra-]]'' in other Correlatives.)


Some of the most common constructions are listed below:
Some of the most common constructions are listed below:
Line 763: Line 1,675:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ''ðlai'' ‘time’ || '''''la'''ðlai'' ‘then, back then’ || '''''ja'''ðlai'' ‘now’ || '''''þa'''ðlai'' ‘in the future’
| ''[[ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]'' ‘time’  
| ''[[laðlai#Maltcégj|'''la'''ðlai]]'' ‘then, back then’  
| ''[[jaðlai#Maltcégj|'''ja'''ðlai]]'' ‘now’  
| ''[[þaðlai#Maltcégj|'''þa'''ðlai]]'' ‘in the future’
|-
|-
| ''nad'' ‘day’ || '''''la'''nad'' ‘yesterday’ || '''''ja'''nad'' ‘today’ || '''''þa'''nad'' ‘tomorrow’
| ''[[nad#Maltcégj|nad]]'' ‘day’  
| ''[[lanad#Maltcégj|'''la'''nad]]'' ‘yesterday’  
| ''[[janad#Maltcégj|'''ja'''nad]]'' ‘today’  
| ''[[þanad#Maltcégj|'''þa'''nad]]'' ‘tomorrow’
|-
|-
| ''temét'' ‘morning’ || '''''la'''temét'' ‘yesterday morning’ || '''''ja'''temét'' ‘this morning’ || '''''þa'''temét'' ‘tomorrow morning’
| ''[[temét#Maltcégj|temét]]'' ‘morning’  
| ''[[latemét#Maltcégj|'''la'''temét]]'' ‘yesterday morning’  
| ''[[jatemét#Maltcégj|'''ja'''temét]]'' ‘this morning’  
| ''[[þatemét#Maltcégj|'''þa'''temét]]'' ‘tomorrow morning’
|-
|-
| ''bará'' ‘afternoon’ || '''''la'''bará'' ‘yesterday afternoon’ || '''''ja'''bará'' ‘this afternoon’ || '''''þa'''bará'' ‘tomorrow afternoon’
| ''[[bará#Maltcégj|bará]]'' ‘afternoon’  
| ''[[labará#Maltcégj|'''la'''bará]]'' ‘yesterday afternoon’  
| ''[[jabará#Maltcégj|'''ja'''bará]]'' ‘this afternoon’  
| ''[[þabará#Maltcégj|'''þa'''bará]]'' ‘tomorrow afternoon’
|-
|-
| ''ápten'' ‘evening’ || '''''l'''ápten'' ‘yesterday evening’ || '''''j'''ápten'' ‘this evening’ || '''''þ'''ápten'' ‘tomorrow evening’
| ''[[ápten#Maltcégj|ápten]]'' ‘evening’  
| ''[[lápten#Maltcégj|'''l'''ápten]]'' ‘yesterday evening’  
| ''[[jápten#Maltcégj|'''j'''ápten]]'' ‘this evening’  
| ''[[þápten#Maltcégj|'''þ'''ápten]]'' ‘tomorrow evening’
|-
|-
| ''beríc'' ‘night’ || '''''la'''beríc'' ‘last night’ || '''''ja'''beríc'' ‘tonight’ || '''''þa'''beríc'' ‘tomorrow night’
| ''[[beríc#Maltcégj|beríc]]'' ‘night’  
| ''[[laberíc#Maltcégj|'''la'''beríc]]'' ‘last night’  
| ''[[jaberíc#Maltcégj|'''ja'''beríc]]'' ‘tonight’  
| ''[[þaberíc#Maltcégj|'''þa'''beríc]]'' ‘tomorrow night’
|-
|-
| ''danjád'' ‘week’ || '''''la'''danjád'' ‘last week’ || '''''ja'''danjád'' ‘this week’ || '''''þa'''danjád'' ‘next week’
| ''[[danjád#Maltcégj|danjád]]'' ‘week’  
| ''[[ladanjád#Maltcégj|'''la'''danjád]]'' ‘last week’  
| ''[[jadanjád#Maltcégj|'''ja'''danjád]]'' ‘this week’  
| ''[[þadanjád#Maltcégj|'''þa'''danjád]]'' ‘next week’
|-
|-
| ''rúma'' ‘month’ || '''''la'''rúma'' ‘last month’ || '''''ja'''rúma'' ‘this month’ || '''''þa'''rúma'' ‘next month’
| ''[[rúma#Maltcégj|rúma]]'' ‘month’  
| ''[[larúma#Maltcégj|'''la'''rúma]]'' ‘last month’  
| ''[[jarúma#Maltcégj|'''ja'''rúma]]'' ‘this month’  
| ''[[þarúma#Maltcégj|'''þa'''rúma]]'' ‘next month’
|-
|-
| ''avíl'' ‘year’ || '''''l'''avíl'' ‘last year’ || '''''j'''avíl'' ‘this year’ || '''''þ'''avíl'' ‘next year’
| ''[[avíl#Maltcégj|avíl]]'' ‘year’  
| ''[[lavíl#Maltcégj|'''l'''avíl]]'' ‘last year’  
| ''[[javíl#Maltcégj|'''j'''avíl]]'' ‘this year’  
| ''[[þavíl#Maltcégj|'''þ'''avíl]]'' ‘next year’
|-
|-
|}
|}


These prefixes can also be used in with the word ''ðlai'' (above) to form adjectives meaning ‘past’, ‘present’, and ‘future’, respectively, as well as ''arán'' ‘place’, (which has some specific connotations depending on how it’s used).
These prefixes can also be used in with the word ''[[ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]'' (above) to form adjectives meaning ‘past’, ‘present’, and ‘future’, respectively, as well as ''[[arán#Maltcégj|arán]]'' ‘place’, (which has some specific connotations depending on how it’s used).


==Sentence Structure==
==Sentence Structure==
Line 802: Line 1,741:
|colspan=7| ''I nicely gave the book to the man at his house this morning.''
|colspan=7| ''I nicely gave the book to the man at his house this morning.''
|-
|-
| gave || nicely || I || the book || this morning || at his house || to the man
| gave  
| nicely  
| I  
| the book  
| this morning  
| at his house  
| to the man
|-
|-
| ''dyd-gélk'' || ''lef-breuð'' || ''jǫg'' || ''klág-a'' || ''ja-temét'' || ''pul u-márga-h-íli'' || ''þád-að''
| ''[[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]]-[[gelk#Maltcégj|gélk]]''  
| ''[[lef#Maltcégj|lef]]-[[breuð#Maltcégj|breuð]]''  
| ''[[jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]''  
| ''[[klag#Maltcégj|klág]]-[[-a#Maltcégj|a]]''  
| ''[[ja#Maltcégj|ja]]-[[temét#Maltcégj|temét]]''  
| ''[[pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[u-#Maltcégj|u]]-[[márga#Maltcégj|márga]]-h-[[-íli#Maltcégj|íli]]''  
| ''[[þad#Maltcégj|þád]]-[[-að#Maltcégj|að]]''
|-
|-
| PST-give || ADV-nice || 1sg || book-ACC || PROX-morning || he POSS-house-[ligature]-APUD || man-DAT
| PST-give  
| ADV-nice  
| 1sg  
| book-ACC  
| PROX-morning  
| he POSS-house-[ligature]-APUD  
| man-DAT
|-
|-
|colspan=7| ''dydgélk lefbreuð jǫg klága jatemét pul umárgahíli þádað ''
|colspan=7| ''[[dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]][[gelk#Maltcégj|gélk]] [[lef#Maltcégj|lef]][[breuð#Maltcégj|bréuð]] [[jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]] [[klag#Maltcégj|klága]] [[jatemét#Maltcégj|jatemét]] [[pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[márga#Maltcégj|umárga]][[-íli#Maltcégj|híli]] [[þad#Maltcégj|þádað]]''
|}
|}


You need never deviate from this word order. To make an indicative statement into a question (whereby in English we would reverse the subject and the verb), simply add the particle ''cʌþ'' before the verb.
You need never deviate from this word order. To make an indicative statement into a question (whereby in English we would reverse the subject and the verb), simply add the particle ''[[cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]]'' before the verb.


Aside from these sentence elements, there are a few other word order concerns to note:
Aside from these sentence elements, there are a few other word order concerns to note:
* Adjectives always follow the nouns they modify (as in romance languages).
* Adjectives always follow the nouns they modify (as in romance languages).
* Numbers also follow the nouns they modify.
* Numbers also follow the nouns they modify.
* Adpositions always follow the nouns they modify (except ''u-'').
* Adpositions always follow the nouns they modify (except ''[[u-#Maltcégj|u-]]'').
* Phrases are “left-headed,” including numbers, possessives, genitives, adjectives, and others.
* Phrases are “left-headed,” including numbers, possessives, genitives, adjectives, and others.
* When an adjective is used as the predicate of a sentence, it can be treated as a verb; however, you can also use the verb ''ek'' (‘to be’).
* When an adjective is used as the predicate of a sentence, it can be treated as a verb; however, you can also use the verb ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]]'' (‘to be’).
 
==Vocabulary==
The official corpus of the Maltcégj lexicon can be found '''[[:Category: Maltcégj words|here.]]'''
 
===Greetings and Common Phrases===
 
*'''[[bjólet nad]]''' ''Hello.''
*'''[[bjólet tcǫc]]''' ''Welcome.''
*'''[[gabúga]]'''  ''Hello / Thank you / You're Welcome / Good-bye / Aloha / Shalom.'' (A nice catch-all word for most social niceties; literally: “Acknowledged.”)
*'''[[gúba]]''' '' “” '' (A short form of ''gabúga''.)
*'''[[kwestrïém]]''' ''Please.''
*'''[[kwestrïóþ]]''' ''Thank you'.'
*'''[[gam]]''' ''Yes.''
*'''[[blei]]''' ''No.''
*'''[[bjólet bjályt kéiliþ unád]]''' ''Happy White Rabbit Day.''
*'''[[kwarþtcǫ́k nem jadío wíðoc ujlák mes, kláran dydvléi paj, klai dydrakvérkþid mélem, akbóï krǫ́ga lexét, kambaldréf skan mélem: vreibjólet!]]''' ''Happy Birthday.''
*'''[[salméilo wʌf akɮát]]''' ''Bon appétit.''
*'''[[bjólet mwa]]''' ''Good-bye.'' (To the person who is staying)
*'''[[bjólet tcok]]''' ''Good-bye.'' (To the person who is leaving)
 
===Swadesh List===
''For those of you who like this sort of thing!''
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! &nbsp;
!width=150px| Maltcégj
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=150px| Maltcégj
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=150px| Maltcégj
!width=150px| English
|-
! 001
| '''[[jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]'''
| I
! 070
| '''[[bláka ẏála#Maltcégj|bláka ẏála]]'''
| feather
! 139
| '''[[kyvrén#Maltcégj|kyvrén]]'''
| to count
|-
! 002
| '''[[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]''', '''[[mélmine#Maltcégj|mélmine]]'''
| you
! 071
| '''[[krámuï#Maltcégj|krámuï]]'''
| hair (on head)
! 140
| '''[[ðak#Maltcégj|ðak]]'''
| to say
|-
! 003
| '''[[pul#Maltcégj|pul]]''', '''[[pel#Maltcégj|pel]]''', '''[[paj#Maltcégj|paj]]'''
| he, she, it
! 072
| '''[[talp#Maltcégj|talp]]'''
| head
! 141
| '''[[nowél#Maltcégj|nowél]]'''
| to sing
|-
! 004
| '''[[jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]''', '''[[jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]'''
| we
! 073
| '''[[ǫx#Maltcégj|ǫx]]'''
| ear
! 142
| '''[[leikáþ#Maltcégj|leikáþ]]'''
| to play
|-
! 005
| '''[[mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]''', '''[[mélmine#Maltcégj|mélmine]]'''
| you
! 074
| '''[[wáfo#Maltcégj|wáfo]]'''
| eye
! 143
| '''[[andakúru#Maltcégj|andakúru]]'''
| to float
|-
! 006
| '''[[parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]]'''
| they
! 075
| '''[[yéfu#Maltcégj|yéfu]]'''
| nose
! 144
| '''[[vlíran#Maltcégj|vlíran]]'''
| to flow
|-
! 007
| '''[[úli#Maltcégj|úli]]'''
| this
! 076
| '''[[ódɮo#Maltcégj|ódɮo]]'''
| mouth
! 145
| '''[[bral#Maltcégj|bral]]'''
| to freeze
|-
! 008
| '''[[úla#Maltcégj|úla]]'''
| that
! 077
| '''[[ɮat#Maltcégj|ɮat]]'''
| tooth
! 146
| '''[[páþki#Maltcégj|páþki]]'''
| to swell
|-
! 009
| '''[[jarán#Maltcégj|jarán]]'''
| here
! 078
| '''[[bvlað#Maltcégj|bvlað]]'''
| tongue
! 147
| '''[[jadíȯ#Maltcégj|jadíȯ]]'''
| sun
|-
! 010
| '''[[ðrarán#Maltcégj|ðrarán]]'''
| there
! 079
| '''[[kraul#Maltcégj|kraul]]'''
| fingernail
! 148
| '''[[rúma#Maltcégj|rúma]]'''
| moon
|-
! 011
| '''[[mlað#Maltcégj|mlað]]'''
| who
! 080
| '''[[ðeup#Maltcégj|ðeup]]'''
| foot
! 149
| '''[[dlyn#Maltcégj|dlyn]]'''
| star
|-
! 012
| '''[[mlak#Maltcégj|mlak]]'''
| what
! 081
| '''[[lekc#Maltcégj|lekc]]'''
| leg
! 150
| '''[[ðbreugj#Maltcégj|ðbreugj]]'''
| water
|-
! 013
| '''[[mlarán#Maltcégj|mlarán]]'''
| where
! 082
| '''[[ilǫx#Maltcégj|ilǫx]]'''
| knee
! 151
| '''[[blǫp#Maltcégj|blǫp]]'''
| rain
|-
! 014
| '''[[mlai#Maltcégj|mlai]]'''
| when
! 083
| '''[[rul#Maltcégj|rul]]'''
| hand
! 152
| '''[[vótma#Maltcégj|vótma]]'''
| river
|-
! 015
| '''[[mlið#Maltcégj|mlið]]'''
| how
! 084
| '''[[fwi#Maltcégj|fwi]]'''
| wing
! 153
| '''[[strak#Maltcégj|strak]]'''
| lake
|-
! 016
| '''[[bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]'''
| not
! 085
| '''[[rótclep#Maltcégj|rótclep]]'''
| belly, abdomen
! 154
| '''[[jbram#Maltcégj|jbram]]'''
| sea
|-
! 017
| '''[[kúluï#Maltcégj|kúluï]]'''
| all
! 086
| '''[[aníct#Maltcégj|aníct]]'''
| guts, entrails
! 155
| '''[[gáltam#Maltcégj|gáltam]]'''
| salt
|-
! 018
| '''[[lexét#Maltcégj|lexét]]'''
| many
! 087
| '''[[xǫbj#Maltcégj|xǫbj]]'''
| neck
! 156
| '''[[éþryl#Maltcégj|éþryl]]'''
| stone
|-
! 019
| '''[[mẏen#Maltcégj|mẏen]]'''
| some
! 088
| '''[[gjol#Maltcégj|gjol]]'''
| back
! 157
| '''[[cweix#Maltcégj|cweix]]'''
| sand
|-
! 020
| '''[[puláu#Maltcégj|puláu]]'''
| few
! 089
| '''[[frauct#Maltcégj|frauct]]'''
| breast
! 158
| '''[[dvem#Maltcégj|dvem]]'''
| dust
|-
! 021
| '''[[fórwið#Maltcégj|fórwið]]'''
| other
! 090
| '''[[báxef#Maltcégj|báxef]]'''
| heart
! 159
| '''[[mócara#Maltcégj|mócara]]'''
| earth, soil, dirt
|-
! 022
| '''[[am#Maltcégj|am]]'''
| one
! 091
| '''[[vákcer#Maltcégj|vákcer]]'''
| liver
! 160
| '''[[amléun#Maltcégj|amléun]]'''
| cloud
|-
! 023
| '''[[dai#Maltcégj|dai]]'''
| two
! 092
| '''[[ra#Maltcégj|ra]]'''
| to drink
! 161
| '''[[nir#Maltcégj|nir]]'''
| fog, mist
|-
! 024
| '''[[tran#Maltcégj|tran]]'''
| three
! 093
| '''[[go#Maltcégj|go]]'''
| to eat
! 162
| '''[[wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]]'''
| sky
|-
! 025
| '''[[jamp#Maltcégj|jamp]]'''
| four
! 094
| '''[[gnac#Maltcégj|gnac]]'''
| to bite
! 163
| '''[[batár#Maltcégj|batár]]'''
| wind
|-
! 026
| '''[[frem#Maltcégj|frem]]'''
| five
! 095
| '''[[ɮuk#Maltcégj|ɮuk]]'''
| to suck
! 164
| '''[[cic#Maltcégj|cic]]'''
| snow
|-
! 027
| '''[[bórgahok#Maltcégj|bórgahok]]'''
| big, large
! 096
| '''[[pfatɮ#Maltcégj|pfatɮ]]'''
| to spit
! 165
| '''[[cuf#Maltcégj|cuf]]'''
| ice
|-
! 028
| '''[[kóhok#Maltcégj|kóhok]]'''
| long
! 097
| '''[[bvolv#Maltcégj|bvolv]]'''
| to vomit
! 166
| '''[[mruk#Maltcégj|mruk]]'''
| smoke
|-
! 029
| '''[[ivdáhok#Maltcégj|ivdáhok]]'''
| wide, broad
! 098
| '''[[hu#Maltcégj|hu]]'''
| blow
! 167
| '''[[gapák#Maltcégj|gapák]]'''
| fire
|-
! 030
| '''[[nóstok#Maltcégj|nóstok]]'''
| thick
! 099
| '''[[ahá#Maltcégj|ahá]]'''
| to breathe
! 168
| '''[[ɮið#Maltcégj|ɮið]]'''
| ash, ashes
|-
! 031
| '''[[ʌráuk#Maltcégj|ʌráuk]]'''
| heavy
! 100
| '''[[hahár#Maltcégj|hahár]]'''
| to laugh
! 169
| '''[[brálʌ#Maltcégj|brálʌ]]'''
| burn
|-
! 032
| '''[[ílu#Maltcégj|ílu]]''', '''[[pélki#Maltcégj|pélki]]'''
| small, little
! 101
| '''[[kulóm#Maltcégj|kulóm]]'''
| to see
! 170
| '''[[bweið#Maltcégj|bweið]]'''
| path, road, trail
|-
! 033
| '''[[kóhalm#Maltcégj|kóhalm]]'''
| short
! 102
| '''[[daxó#Maltcégj|daxó]]'''
| to hear
! 171
| '''[[mágreb#Maltcégj|mágreb]]'''
| mountain
|-
! 034
| '''[[ivdáhalm#Maltcégj|ivdáhalm]]'''
| narrow
! 103
| '''[[apþán#Maltcégj|apþán]]'''
| to know
! 172
| '''[[djódei#Maltcégj|djódei]]'''
| red
|-
! 035
| '''[[nóstalm#Maltcégj|nóstalm]]'''
| thin
! 104
| '''[[bliv#Maltcégj|bliv]]'''
| to think
! 173
| '''[[gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]]'''
| green
|-
! 036
| '''[[glam#Maltcégj|glam]]'''
| woman
! 105
| '''[[ɮeum#Maltcégj|ɮeum]]'''
| to smell
! 174
| '''[[kféivrei#Maltcégj|kféivrei]]'''
| yellow
|-
! 037
| '''[[þad#Maltcégj|þad]]'''
| man
! 106
| '''[[cáxok#Maltcégj|cáxok]]'''
| to fear
! 175
| '''[[kéiliþ#Maltcégj|kéiliþ]]'''
| white
|-
! 038
| '''[[hanák#Maltcégj|hanák]]'''
| person
! 107
| '''[[kaiþ#Maltcégj|kaiþ]]'''
| to sleep
! 176
| '''[[ẏákni#Maltcégj|ẏákni]]'''
| black
|-
! 039
| '''[[ráta#Maltcégj|ráta]]'''
| child
! 108
| '''[[baldréf#Maltcégj|baldréf]]'''
| to live
! 177
| '''[[beríc#Maltcégj|beríc]]'''
| night
|-
! 040
| '''[[ẏána glam#Maltcégj|ẏána glam]]'''
| wife
! 109
| '''[[þlax#Maltcégj|þlax]]'''
| to die
! 178
| '''[[nad#Maltcégj|nad]]'''
| day
|-
! 041
| '''[[ẏána þad#Maltcégj|ẏána þad]]'''
| husband
! 110
| '''[[klógex#Maltcégj|klógex]]'''
| to kill
! 179
| '''[[avíl#Maltcégj|avíl]]'''
| year
|-
! 042
| '''[[krýstʌ#Maltcégj|krýstʌ]]'''
| mother
! 111
| '''[[blokþ#Maltcégj|blokþ]]'''
| to fight
! 180
| '''[[moin#Maltcégj|moin]]'''
| hot (weather)
|-
! 043
| '''[[tym#Maltcégj|tym]]'''
| father
! 112
| '''[[ranév#Maltcégj|ranév]]'''
| to hunt
! 181
| '''[[níli#Maltcégj|níli]]'''
| cold
|-
! 044
| '''[[báldir#Maltcégj|báldir]]'''
| animal
! 113
| '''[[txatɮ#Maltcégj|txatɮ]]'''
| to hit
! 182
| '''[[nalp#Maltcégj|nalp]]'''
| full
|-
! 045
| '''[[ðbruk#Maltcégj|ðbruk]]'''
| fish
! 114
| '''[[xóreica#Maltcégj|xóreica]]'''
| to cut
! 183
| '''[[dweg#Maltcégj|dweg]]'''
| new
|-
! 046
| '''[[ẏála#Maltcégj|ẏála]]'''
| bird
! 115
| '''[[cpiþ#Maltcégj|cpiþ]]'''
| to split
! 184
| '''[[velk#Maltcégj|velk]]'''
| old
|-
! 047
| '''[[mrag#Maltcégj|mrag]]'''
| dog
! 116
| '''[[styx#Maltcégj|styx]]'''
| to stab, to pierce
! 185
| '''[[bjólet#Maltcégj|bjólet]]'''
| good
|-
! 048
| '''[[ylk#Maltcégj|ylk]]'''
| louse
! 117
| '''[[skis#Maltcégj|skis]]'''
| to scratch
! 186
| '''[[xrǫx#Maltcégj|xrǫx]]'''
| bad
|-
! 049
| '''[[cu#Maltcégj|cu]]'''
| snake
! 118
| '''[[ðeptán#Maltcégj|ðeptán]]'''
| to dig
! 187
| '''[[xax#Maltcégj|xax]]'''
| rotten
|-
! 050
| '''[[covói#Maltcégj|covói]]'''
| worm
! 119
| '''[[ðbreuck#Maltcégj|ðbreuck]]'''
| to swim
! 188
| '''[[xʌ#Maltcégj|xʌ]]'''
| dirty
|-
! 051
| '''[[víktro#Maltcégj|víktro]]'''
| tree
! 120
| '''[[fwi#Maltcégj|fwi]]'''
| to fly
! 189
| '''[[platúk#Maltcégj|platúk]]'''
| straight
|-
! 052
| '''[[kfei#Maltcégj|kfei]]'''
| forest, woods
! 121
| '''[[ðeup#Maltcégj|ðeup]]'''
| to walk
! 190
| '''[[tcápa#Maltcégj|tcápa]]'''
| round
|-
! 053
| '''[[roc#Maltcégj|roc]]'''
| stick
! 122
| '''[[tcǫc#Maltcégj|tcǫc]]'''
| come
! 191
| '''[[clix#Maltcégj|clix]]'''
| sharp
|-
! 054
| '''[[ána#Maltcégj|ána]]'''
| fruit
! 123
| '''[[plak#Maltcégj|plak]]'''
| to lie
! 192
| '''[[me’#Maltcégj|me’]]'''
| dull (of a knife)
|-
! 055
| '''[[dat#Maltcégj|dat]]'''
| seed
! 124
| '''[[malá#Maltcégj|malá]]'''
| to sit
! 193
| '''[[glai#Maltcégj|glai]]'''
| smooth
|-
! 056
| '''[[ároc víktro#Maltcégj|ároc víktro]]'''
| leaf
! 125
| '''[[sto#Maltcégj|sto]]'''
| to stand
! 194
| '''[[úlak#Maltcégj|úlak]]'''
| wet
|-
! 057
| '''[[renáþ#Maltcégj|renáþ]]'''
| root
! 126
| '''[[þlog#Maltcégj|þlog]]'''
| to turn
! 195
| '''[[kat#Maltcégj|kat]]'''
| dry
|-
! 058
| '''[[ha#Maltcégj|ha]]'''
| bark (of tree)
! 127
| '''[[padj#Maltcégj|padj]]'''
| to fall
! 196
| '''[[drug#Maltcégj|drug]]'''
| correct, right
|-
! 059
| '''[[máru#Maltcégj|máru]]'''
| flower
! 128
| '''[[gelk#Maltcégj|gelk]]'''
| to give
! 197
| '''[[min#Maltcégj|min]]'''
| near
|-
! 060
| '''[[gnída#Maltcégj|gnída]]'''
| grass
! 129
| '''[[rǫþ#Maltcégj|rǫþ]]'''
| to hold
! 198
| '''[[naul#Maltcégj|naul]]'''
| far
|-
! 061
| '''[[lwánde#Maltcégj|lwánde]]'''
| rope
! 130
| '''[[fástnar#Maltcégj|fástnar]]'''
| to squeeze
! 199
| '''[[ẏau#Maltcégj|ẏau]]'''
| right, right-hand
|-
! 062
| '''[[ha#Maltcégj|ha]]'''
| skin
! 131
| '''[[fneuc#Maltcégj|fneuc]]'''
| to rub
! 200
| '''[[xwa#Maltcégj|xwa]]'''
| left, left-hand
|-
! 063
| '''[[méiza#Maltcégj|méiza]]'''
| flesh, meat
! 132
| '''[[cwuc#Maltcégj|cwuc]]'''
| to wash
! 201
| '''[[-að#Maltcégj|-að]]''', '''[[dialx#Maltcégj|dialx]]'''
| at
|-
! 064
| '''[[sfarð#Maltcégj|sfarð]]'''
| blood
! 133
| '''[[cwyc#Maltcégj|cwyc]]'''
| to wipe
! 202
| '''[[-ei#Maltcégj|-ei]]'''
| in
|-
! 065
| '''[[wʌf#Maltcégj|wʌf]]'''
| bone
! 134
| '''[[mrudj#Maltcégj|mrudj]]'''
| to pull
! 203
| '''[[-ok#Maltcégj|-ok]]'''
| with
|-
! 066
| '''[[lat#Maltcégj|lat]]'''
| grease, fat
! 135
| '''[[jdrom#Maltcégj|jdrom]]'''
| to push
! 204
| '''[[ei#Maltcégj|ei]]'''
| and
|-
! 067
| '''[[ar#Maltcégj|ar]]'''
| egg
! 136
| '''[[ẏakt#Maltcégj|ẏakt]]'''
| to throw
! 205
| '''[[ceil#Maltcégj|ceil]]'''
| if
|-
! 068
| '''[[bict#Maltcégj|bict]]'''
| horn
! 137
| '''[[doklím#Maltcégj|doklím]]'''
| to tie, bind
! 206
| '''[[ðrímiëm#Maltcégj|ðrímiëm]]'''
| because
|-
! 069
| '''[[bísẏa#Maltcégj|bísẏa]]'''
| tail
! 138
| '''[[gwanós#Maltcégj|gwanós]]'''
| to sew
! 207
| '''[[blynþ#Maltcégj|blynþ]]'''
| name
|}


==Easter Eggs==
==Easter Eggs==


Just some fun coincidences, borrowings, and malamanteaux that I’ve collected here:
Just some fun coincidences, borrowings, and malamanteaux that I’ve collected here:
* '''''ároc víktro''''' ‘leaf’ – literally “tree feather.” The word ''ároc'' is no longer used in any other context.
* '''''[[afáik#Maltcégj|afáik]]''''' ‘to the best of my knowledge’ ― an evidential particle based on the initialism AFAIK (“as far as I know”).
* '''''bévlo''''' ‘particle, grain, atom’ - from Bevlo Particles, cf. IV.
* '''''[[ároc víktro#Maltcégj|ároc víktro]]''''' ‘leaf’ – literally “tree feather.” The word ''[[ároc#Maltcégj|ároc]]'' is no longer used in any other context.
* '''''bjályt éþryl''''' ‘hyrax, ''Hyracoidea'' species.’ - literally, “rock rabbit.”
* '''''[[bévlo#Maltcégj|bévlo]]''''' ‘particle, grain, atom’ - from Bevlo Particles, cf. IV.
* '''''bláka ẏála''''' ‘feather’ – literally “bird leaf.” The word ''bláka'' is no longer used in any other context.
* '''''[[bjályt éþryl#Maltcégj|bjályt éþryl]]''''' ‘hyrax, ''Hyracoidea'' species.’ - literally, “rock rabbit.”
* '''''dat''''' ‘seed’ – from ‘dot’.
* '''''[[bláka ẏála#Maltcégj|bláka ẏála]]''''' ‘feather’ – literally “bird leaf.” The word ''[[bláka#Maltcégj|bláka]]'' is no longer used in any other context.
* '''''edvín''''' ‘to rage’ – from Edvin S.
* '''''[[dat#Maltcégj|dat]]''''' ‘seed’ – from ‘dot’.
* '''''éþryl ulát''''' ‘tar, petroleum, asphalt’ - literally, “rock lard.”
* '''''[[edvín#Maltcégj|edvín]]''''' ‘to rage’ – from Edvin S.
* '''''fýcnet''''' ‘cishet’ - Auto-correct, man...
* '''''[[éþryl ulát#Maltcégj|éþryl ulát]]''''' ‘tar, petroleum, asphalt’ - literally, “rock lard.”
* '''''ik vloj''''' ‘chin’ - literally, “face corner.”
* '''''[[fýcnet#Maltcégj|fýcnet]]''''' ‘cishet’ - Auto-correct, man...
* '''''máru kraul''''' ‘artichoke’ - literally, “fingernail flower.”
* '''''[[ik vloj#Maltcégj|ik vloj]]''''' ‘chin’ - literally, “face corner.”
* '''''méilat''''' ‘cat, ''Felis domesticus''’ - from Melate T.
* '''''[[máru kraul#Maltcégj|máru kraul]]''''' ‘artichoke’ - literally, “fingernail flower.”
* '''''núton''''' ‘target, goal, aim’ - from ''núton salméilo'' ‘Isaac Newton’ - literally, “apple target.”
* '''''[[méilat#Maltcégj|méilat]]''''' ‘cat, ''Felis domesticus''’ - from Melate T.
* '''''salgebúra''''' ‘shock or revulsion over something stupid and offensive’ – a malamanteau of Hebrew ''גבורה'' and S.L.G.B.R. which stands for something else stupid and offensive which I’ll keep to myself.
* '''''[[núton#Maltcégj|núton]]''''' ‘target, goal, aim’ - from ''[[núton salméilo#Maltcégj|núton salméilo]]'' ‘Isaac Newton’ - literally, “apple target.”
* '''''salméilo wʌf akɮát''''' ‘''bon appétit''’, which is an eggcorn for ''salméilol fak ɮat'', ‘may the apple be tempting to the tooth’ but has now become standardized. It literally means ‘bone apple teeth’, itself an English eggcorn for ''bon appétit''.
* '''''[[salgebúra#Maltcégj|salgebúra]]''''' ‘shock or revulsion over something stupid and offensive’ – a malamanteau of Hebrew ''גבורה'' and S.L.G.B.R. which stands for something else stupid and offensive which I’ll keep to myself.
* '''''tcápa''''' ‘ring, circle’ – Goa’uld ''chappa-ai''. (Originally that meaning was further extended by the postposition ''ai'', wherein ''tcápaai'' meant ‘through the ring,’ but this was later broken by a phonological rule which rendered it ''tcápahai''.
* '''''[[salméilo wʌf akɮát#Maltcégj|salméilo wʌf akɮát]]''''' ‘''bon appétit''’, which is an eggcorn for ''[[salméilo#Maltcégj|salméilo]][[-ʌ#Maltcégj|l]] [[fak#Maltcégj|fak]] [[ɮat#Maltcégj|ɮat]]'', ‘may the apple be tempting to the tooth’ but has now become standardized. It literally means ‘bone apple teeth’, itself an English eggcorn for ''bon appétit''.
* '''''tcélo''''' ‘lavender, light purple’ - from ''cello'', which is not quite a ''viola'', like how ''violet'' also isn't.
* '''''[[tcápa#Maltcégj|tcápa]]''''' ‘ring, circle’ – Goa’uld ''chappa-ai''. (Originally that meaning was further extended by the postposition ''[[-ai#Maltcégj|ai]]'', wherein ''tcápaai'' meant ‘through the ring,’ but this was later broken by a phonological rule which rendered it ''[[tcápa#Maltcégj|tcápa]]h[[-ai#Maltcégj|ai]]''.
* '''''[[tcélo#Maltcégj|tcélo]]''''' ‘lavender, light purple’ - from ''cello'', which is not quite a ''viola'', like how ''violet'' also isn't.
* Most kinship terms are names for members of my direct family or words that describe them. Just a few examples are:
* Most kinship terms are names for members of my direct family or words that describe them. Just a few examples are:
** '''''adína''''' ‘sister’ - This is the name of my sister, Adina.
** '''''[[adína#Maltcégj|adína]]''''' ‘sister’ - This is the name of my sister, Adina.
** '''''katír''''' ‘parternal grandparents’ - The plural form, ''akatír'' is from my home town’s old High School basketball team, the Halcotteers, which later came to be used locally to refer to any old folks from that town (i.e. from the era when we still had a High School). (The High School was actually in Fleischmanns, not Halcott, but that’s another story.)
** '''''[[katír#Maltcégj|katír]]''''' ‘parternal grandparents’ - The plural form, ''[[ak#Maltcégj|ak]][[katír#Maltcégj|atír]]'' is from my home town’s old High School basketball team, the Halcotteers, which later came to be used locally to refer to any old folks from that town (i.e. from the era when we still had a High School). (The High School was actually in Fleischmanns, not Halcott, but that’s another story.)
** '''''ǫ́bri''''' ‘niece’ – the name of my niece, Aubrey.
** '''''[[ǫ́bri#Maltcégj|ǫ́bri]]''''' ‘niece’ – the name of my niece, Aubrey.
** '''''zadjámindz''''' ‘great grandparents, mother’s father’s parents’ – Because my Bavarian great-grandparents, Katherine and Heinrich were “ze Germans.”
** '''''[[zadjámindz#Maltcégj|zadjámindz]]''''' ‘great grandparents, mother’s father’s parents’ – Because my Bavarian great-grandparents, Katherine and Heinrich were “ze Germans.”
 
<br /><br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:A_priori]]

Latest revision as of 19:30, 22 September 2023


Maltcégj is an a priori, quasi-agglutinative, semi-analytic head-initial language created by BenJamin P. Johnson in 2001. It has a strict VSO sentence structure that is modified with large numbers of verbal and nominal particles.

Alphabet and Pronunciation

a b c d ð e f g ǧ h i
/ɑ/ /b/ /ʃ/ /d/ /ð/ /ɛ/ /f/ /g/ /γ/ /h/ /i/
j k l ɮ ʌ m n o ǫ p r
/ʒ/ /k/ /l/ /ɮ/ /ɫ̩/ /m/ /n/ /o/ /ɔ/ /p/ /ɾ/
ʀ s t þ u v w x y z
/ɹ̩/ /s/ /t/ /θ/ /u/ /v/ /w/ /x/ /ɪ/ /j/ /z/

Orthography

  • Primary stress is indicated in words of more than one syllable with an acute accent over the primary vowel. In diphthongs, the accent is placed on the first vowel.
  • Where two vowels appear together but are not a diphthong, the second vowel is marked with a diæresis if it is a front vowel, or with a single dot if a back vowel (i.e. ï, ÿ, ë, ȧ, ǫ̇, ȯ, u̇), e.g. oï.
    • Even if this would not result in a standard diphthong, this convention is still followed any time there are two disyllabic pertingent vowels, e.g. kúluï ‘all’, itáliȧ ‘Italy’.
    • If the second vowel is stressed, however, the first vowel is marked instead, e.g. italiáno → italïáno ‘Italian’.
    • (NB: This stylistic rule is followed rather loosely, and often only applies to the letters 〈ë〉 and 〈ï〉.)
  • No capital letters are used.

Native Writing System

Maltcégj is also written using a featural alphabet which treats the vowels as diacritics, and also uses diacritics to describe manner of articulation and consonant clusters. In all there are only seven “letters”; all other phonetic functions are filled by diacritics or modifications of these seven characters. (Actually, there are really only four: the labial, dental, palatal, and glottal forms are just directional variations of the same character, and the rhotic is just a turned lambdic.)

The default characters are the voiced continuants. (NB: The default form is used by /h/ because there is no unvoiced equivalent.)

Labial Dental Coronal Palatal Velar Glottal Description
Continuant (Voiced) Maltcégj-v.gif
v /v/
Maltcégj-ð.gif
ð /ð/
Maltcégj-z.gif
z /z/
Maltcégj-j.gif
j /ʒ/
Maltcégj-gh.gif
ǧ /γ/
These are the default forms of all the obstruents.
Coninuant (Unvoiced) Maltcégj-f.gif
f /f/
Maltcégj-þ.gif
þ /θ/
Maltcégj-s.gif
s /s/
Maltcégj-c.gif
c /ʃ/
Maltcégj-x.gif
x /x/
Maltcégj-h.gif
h /h/
For devoicing, an extra stroke is added to the body of the character. (There is not an extra stroke in 〈h〉, because since there is no voiced equivalent, it is simpler to leave it in default form.)
Labial Alveolar Vela
Stops Maltcégj-b.gif
b /b/
Maltcégj-p.gif
p /p/
Maltcégj-d.gif
d /d/
Maltcégj-t.gif
t /t/
Maltcégj-g.gif
g /g/
Maltcégj-k.gif
k /k/
Stops are indicated by a diacritic: Maltcégj-plosive.gif
Nasal Maltcégj-m.gif
m /m/
Maltcégj-n.gif
n /n/
A different diacritic is used for nasals: Maltcégj-nasal.gif
  Lambdic Rhotic
Liquids Maltcégj-l.gif
l /l/
Maltcégj-lh.gif
ʌ /ɫ̩/
Maltcégj-l-diac.gif diacritic l Maltcégj-r.gif
r /ɾ/
Maltcégj-rh.gif
ʀ /ɹ̩/
Maltcégj-r-diac.gif diacritic r 〈r〉 and 〈l〉 only appear in default form when they stand on their own; whenever either appears as a part of a consonant cluster, they are written as a diacritic.

Phonology

Consonants

  Labial Dental Coronal Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive p · b t · d k · g
Affricate pf · bv ts · dz tc · dj
Fricative f · v þ · ð s · z c · j x · ǧ h ·
Approximant · ʀ[1] · ẏ · w
Nasal · m · n
Tap / Flap · r
Lateral Affricate tɮ · dɮ
Lateral Fricative · ɮ
Lateral Approximant · l · ʌ[2]
Stops
Unvoiced Voiced
p /p/ as in put
pul [pʰul] ‘he’
b /b/ as in bat
badj [bʰaʤ] ‘to have’
t /t/ as in top
talp [tʰɑlp] ‘head’
d /d/ as in dog
d [dʰið] ‘beautiful’
k /k/ as in keep
kat [kʰɑt] ‘dry’
g /g/ as in get
gelk [gʰɛlk] ‘to give’

Initial stops have a tendency to be aspirated.

Affricates
Unvoiced Voiced
pf /p͡f/ as in German Pferd
pfatɮ [p͡fɑt͡ɬ] ‘spit’
bv /b͡v/ as in obvious
bvrac [bvɾɑʃ] ‘sparrow’
ts /ʦ/ as in gets
frants [fɾɑnʦ] ‘France’
dz /ʣ/ as in adze
xandz [xɑnʣ] ‘Chinese character’
tc /ʧ/ as in church
tcitsíc [ʧi’ʦiʃ] ‘to sneeze’
dj /ʤ/ as in judge
djáska [‘ʤɑskɑ] ‘cinnamon’
/ƛ (t͡ɬ)/ as 〈ll〉 in Icelandic alla
txa [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’
/λ (d͡ɮ)/ as in Xhosa indlovu
óo [‘o.d͡ɮo] ‘mouth’

There are eight “pure” affricates in Maltcégj, though none are represented by their own unique character. For more information, see Consonant Clusters, below.

Fricatives
Unvoiced Voiced
f /f/ as in foot
faurx [fau̯ɾx] ‘heat’
v /v/ as in very
víktro [‘vik.tɾo] ‘tree’
þ /θ/ as 〈th〉 in thing
þad [θɑd] ‘man’
ð /ð/ as 〈th〉 in then
ðak [ðɑk] ‘to say’
s /s/ as in sing
salméilo [sɑl’mɛi̯.lo] ‘apple’
z /z/ as in zoo
zendj [zɛnʤ] ‘paint’
c /ʃ/ as 〈sh〉 in shoe
cul [ʃul] ‘prophesy’
j /ʒ/ as in French jamais
jadíȯ [ʒɑ’di.o] ‘sun’
x /x/ as 〈ch〉 in German Bach
xac [xɑʃ] ‘difficult’
ǧ /γ/ as 〈g〉 in Spanish amigo
ǧénba [‘γɛn.bɑ] ‘apricot’
h /h/ as in hello
hanák [hɑ’nɑk] ‘person, human’
Nasals
m /m/ as in man
márga [‘mɑɾ.ga] ‘house’
n /n/ as in nose
nyj [nɪʒ] ‘grain’

NB: There is no realization of a nasal as /ŋ/, even before a velar obstruent. In many cases, an epenthetic 〈e〉 may intervene between 〈n〉 and a velar (e.g. hánek ‘grandfather’, from Hank), but even when it does not, the letters are pronounced independently (e.g. gýnko /'gɪn.ko/ ‘ginko’, not **/'gɪŋ.ko/).

Liquids
l /l/ as in lamb
lexét [lɛ’xɛt] ‘much, many’
r /ɾ/ as in Spanish pero
ráta [‘ɾɑ.tɑ] ‘child’
ɮ /ɮ,ɬ/[3] as in Zulu indlala
ɮat [ɮɑt] ‘tooth’
ʌ /ɫ̩/ [4]
ʀ /ɹ̩/
Glides
w /w/ as in wood
wʌf [wɫ̩f] ‘bone’
/j/ as 〈y〉 in you
ála [‘jɑ.lɑ] ‘bird’
Vowels
Front Back
i /i/ as 〈ee〉 in beet
ílǫx [‘i.lɔx] ‘knee’
u /u/ as 〈oo〉 in boot
ucát [u’ʃɑt] ‘mustard’
y /ɪ/ as 〈i〉 in bit
ylk [ɪlk] ‘louse, nit’
o /o/ as 〈oa〉 in boat
tcok [ʧok] ‘to go’
e /ɛ/ as in bet
éjva [‘ɛʒ.vɑ] ‘mouse’
ǫ /ɔ/ as 〈ou〉 in bought
ǫ́bri [‘ɔ.bɾi] ‘niece’
a /ɑ/ as in father
adína [ɑ’di.nɑ] ‘sister’
Syllabic Liquids
ʌ /ɫ̩/ as 〈le〉 in middle
ʌ́nax [‘ɫ̩.nɑx] ‘shopping’
ʀ /ɹ̩/ as 〈er〉 in better
wʀn [wɹ̩n] ‘(maternal) grandparent’

〈ʌ〉 and 〈ʀ〉 are considered vowels in Maltcégj and never occur non-syllabically. However, they are not subject to the same diacritic rules for other non-diphthongs as other vowels (though they are still marked when stressed).

Diphthongs
Front Back
ai /ɑi̯/ as in high
skwai [skwɑi̯] ‘lemon’
au /au̯/ as in German Haus
mlau [mlau̯] ‘what’
ei /ei̯/ as in weigh
eict [ei̯ʃt] ‘game’
eu /ɛu̯/ as 〈ew〉 in Welsh ewro
ðeup [ðɛu̯p] ‘foot’
oi /ɔi̯/ as in oil
moin [mɔi̯n] ‘warmth’

Pronouns

Person Notes Reflexive Reciprocal
1sg jǫg I jagj --
2sg mélem you madj
2sg mélminei you formal
3sg.f. pel she feminine peibj
3sg.m pul he masculine
3sg.n paj it inanimate
3sg “they” general or non-specific
1pl jǫ́lmin we inclusive jeltc játci
1pl jalk we general or exclusive
2pl mélem you madj mládji
2pl mélminei you formal
3pl parþ they general pyldj píkci

Some of the most basic elements of language, pronouns will take the place of the subject in most sentences. Maltcégj pronoun structure does not differentiate much from that of English with the exception of a formal and informal second person, and the formal is very infrequently used, but there are “optional” pronouns which may offer more clarity. Just remember to use mélminei when you’re speaking to someone with whom you would use a title in English (e.g. faculty members, judges, business associates, &c). Otherwise, the pronouns above will get you through most situations.

Person Notes Reflexive Reciprocal
2pl akmélem you (all) madj mládji
2pl akmélminei you (all) formal
3pl akpél they feminine (=parþ) pyldj píkci
3pl akpúl they masculine (=parþ)
3pl akpáj they inanimate (=parþ)
3pl akpʌ́ they (=parþ, incorrect)

If you want to be more specific, however, you can use the plural particle ak with the singular pronouns (with the exception of jǫg) to make them plural. You can optionally add ak to mélem and mélminei to further explain that you are referring to more than one person. You can also use ak with the third person pronouns if you explicitly want to annotate gender. Note, however, that saying akpʌ́ is technically incorrect: This should more accurately be parþ, but akpʌ́ is common in speech, just as saying they in English is common to refer to a singular person whose gender is unknown or unclear (as in “Someone left their notebook here.”)

In case you are unfamiliar with the idea of inclusive and exclusive we, only use jǫ́lmin when the person you are addressing is part of the “we” in question, i.e. if you can replace it with “you and I”, or “you and the rest of us”; otherwise, always use jalk. (jalk can be used in an inclusive or exclusive sense if none is specified; jǫ́lmin can only be inclusive.)

In fact, pronouns in Maltcégj are even a little simpler than those in English, because there are no cases to decline. Possessives (my, your, his, our, &c.) are formed by adding the preposition u- to the word being possessed, and the accusative case (me, him, her, them, &c.) by adding the postposition -a to the pronoun.

The reflexive pronouns are used when the verb of the sentence is being done to the subject of the sentence by the subject of the sentence; that is to say, when we would use the word “-self” in English (e.g. myself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, &c.)

The reciprocal pronouns are similar to the reflexive (and in many languages they are identical), but they apply only to plural subjects when the action of the verb is being done to another member of the same plural group. (In English this is generally translated as “each other.”) Compare, for example:

blaiðák parþ pyldj
‘they are talking to themselves’

blaiðák parþ píkci
‘they are talking to each other’

Numbers

0 zo zero
1 am one
2 dai two
3 tran three
4 jamp four
5 frem five
6 cei six
7 dan seven
8 relk eight
9 nein nine
10 seþ ten
20 daiséþ twenty
30 transéþ thirty
40 jampséþ forty
50 fremséþ fifty
60 ceiséþ sixty
70 danséþ seventy
80 relkséþ eighty
90 neinséþ ninety
100 sam hundred
100 sam hundred
1,000 seþ sam thousand (=ten hundreds)
10,000 cep ten thousand
100,000 seþ cep hundred thousand (=ten ten-thousands)
1,000,000 sam cep million (=hundred ten-thousands)
10,000,000 seþ sam cep ten million (=ten hundred ten-thousands)
100,000,000 jak hundred million
1,000,000,000 seþ jak milliard/billion (=ten hundred-millions)
10,000,000,000 sam jak ten milliard/billion (=hundred hundred-millions)
100,000,000,000 seþ sam jak hundred milliard/billion (=ten hundred hundred-millions)
1,000,000,000,000 cep jak billion/trillion (=ten thousand hundred-millions)
10,000,000,000,000 seþ cep jak ten billion/trillion (=ten ten-thousand hundred-millions)
100,000,000,000,000 sam cep jak hundred billion/trillion (=hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
1,000,000,000,000,000 seþ sam cep jak billiard/quadrillion (=ten hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
10,000,000,000,000,000 gwil ten billiard/quadrillion

Maltcégj numbers are base-10 (decimal), but they increase incrementally instead of in the more regular groups of three or six. Therefore, numbers through 999 are enumerated just as they are in English, but the number 1,000 is considered “ten hundred,” or seþ sam. Thereafter, 10,000 is cep, 100,000 seþ cep ‘ten ten-thousands’, 1,000,000 is sam cep ‘one hundred ten-thousands’, 10,000,000 is seþ sam cep ‘ten hundred ten-thousands’, and 100,000,000 is jak. The next increment after jak is gwil, which has a value of ten quadrillion (or ten billiard if you’re from some parts of Europe), followed by ǧan, which is a number large enough that you shouldn’t ever need it unless you’re counting individual atoms, but it’s something like one hundred nonillion (10³²).

Compound numbers are spoken as they are written in English, from left to right, (optionally) inserting indicators for tens, hundreds, thousands, &c., so “twenty-nine” is daiséþ nein ‘two tens nine’, while 3,587 is transéþ fremsám relkséþ dan ‘three tens five hundreds eight tens seven, or thirty-five hundred eighty-seven’. Easier still, and less subject to misinterpretation, the numbers can simply be read from left to right, as in tran frem relk dan ‘three five eight seven’. These are all correct, just as it’s correct in English to say “three thousand five hundred eighty-seven,” “thirty-five hundred and eighty-seven,” “thirty-five eighty-seven,” or even (somewhat less correctly) “three five eight seven.”

The number “zero” should always be read as zo, not bleg, though the two words are interchangeable in some circumstances. When the last digit is zero, however, it should be read as “seþ,” or “sam“ if two zeros… It may sound a little strange, but we do the same thing in English. For example, 780 should be read dan relk seþ ‘seven eighty’; 7,800, dan relk sam ‘seventy-eight hundred’; 78,000, dan relk seþ sam, ‘seventy-eight thousand, &c.

With the exception of the number ‘one’, the particle gji indicates ordinality, much like the suffix -th for numbers 4 – 10 in English. Any number ending in ‘one’ takes the ordinal adám, just as we say first and second in English rather than **oneth or **twoth.

Maltcégj uses the particle ak before a noun to indicate that it is plural, but this particle is not used when a number is present. For example, ‘book’ is klag, ‘books’ is aklág, but ‘two books’ is klag dai (no ak). (See Nouns for more on the use of the plural.)

If using decimals in numbers, the word dat is used to mean ‘point’ or ‘dot’, though it literally means ‘seed’ or ‘egg’.

Articles & Determiners

Maltcégj has no definite article, and the indefinite article am is only used to specifically represent the number ‘one’. Its use of articles in this respect is very similar to Latin or Russian; definiteness is only expressed using the terms úli ‘this’, úla ‘that’, and úlot, ‘that (other) yonder’ (or, respectively, the proximal, medial, and distal deixes). There are additional deixes which are used úlot for discussing time (see Pro-Forms).

Correlatives and Pro-Forms

Most of the pro-forms in Maltcégj stem from combinations of common words, such as ‘this’ + ‘time’, meaning ‘now’, or ‘that’ + ‘thing’ meaning ‘that’. However, it is important to note some historical changes to the language to fully understand how the current forms came to be as they are.

Maltcégj is a head-initial language, like modern Japanese, but the language family from which it is descended, Baraqesh, was head-final, like most modern Indo-European languages. That is to say that forms like ‘who’ (‘which person’) were originally in the order in which we use them in English today, but eventually reversed in the grammar (‘person which’). However, before this reversal occurred, many forms were contracted, particularly those with mlau ‘what’, so there is a duality of some seemingly unrelated forms. For example, ‘when’ (‘what’ + ‘time’) can be both ðláimlau (literally ‘time-what’) and mlai, a contraction of an earlier *mlauðlai.

The deixes ja, la, and þa always precede the noun they modify, even when they are used independently. (For more information on these, see Measurement of Time.)

Still other forms have no relation to the base form, but are listed here for convenience.

The most common correlatives can be found below.

Interrogative Relative Negative
Base forms: mlau (‘what’) kalk (‘that, which’) bleg (‘no’)
lað (‘person’) lað mlau, mlað (‘who’) klað, kalk (‘who’) lað bleg, blað (‘no one’)
lak (‘agent’) lak mlau, mlak (‘what’) klak, kalk (‘that’) lak bleg, blak (‘nothing’)
ðrax (‘thing’) ðrax mlau, mlax (‘what’) klax, kalk (‘which’) ðrax bleg, blax (‘nothing’)
arán (‘place’) arán mlau, mlarán (‘where’) klarán (‘where’) arán bleg, bláran (‘nowhere’)
ðlai (‘time’) ðlai mlau, mlai (‘when’) klai (‘when’) ðlai bleg, blai[5] (‘never’)
kþið (‘manner’) kþið mlau, mlið (‘how’) klið (‘how’) kþið bleg, blið (‘no way’)
mára (‘quantity’) mára mlau, mlára (‘how much/many’) klára (‘how much/many’) mára bleg, blára (‘none’)
hímiem[6] (‘reason’) mlímiem (‘why’) klímiem (‘why’) blímiem (‘for no reason’)
Proximal Medial Distal
Base forms: jála, úli (‘this’) ðóra, úla (‘that’) þa, ulót (‘yonder’)
lað (‘person’) lað úli, jlað (‘this person’) lað úla, ðrað (‘that person’) lað ulót, þlað (‘the other person’)
lak (‘agent’) lak úli, jlak (‘this thing’) lak úla, ðrak (‘that thing’) lak ulót, þlak (‘the other thing’)
ðrax (‘thing’) ðrax úli, jlax (‘this’) ðrax úla, ðrax (‘that’) ðrax ulót, þlax (‘that (other)’)
arán (‘place’) jarán, jlarán[7] (‘here’) larán, ðrarán (‘there’) þarán (‘up there, ahead’), þrarán (‘elsewhere’)
ðlai (‘time’) jaðlai, jlai, nak (‘now’) laðlai, ðraðlai, nos (‘then’) þaðlai (‘in the future’), þraðlái (‘some other time’)
kþið (‘manner’) kþið úli, jlið (‘like this’) kþið úla, ðrið (‘like that’) þkíð (‘some other way’)
mára (‘quantity’) mára úli, márað (‘this much’) mára úla, márað (‘that much’) mára ulót (‘that other amount’)
hímiem[8] (‘reason’) ðrímiem (‘because’) þrímiem (‘for that reason’)

Nouns

Maltcégj nouns are relatively straight-forward. They do not inflect for case or number. Nouns are always the first word in a noun phrase (that is, they precede adjectives and adpositions), though genitive constructions may be constructed in ways that may seem contrary to this assertion (more on the genitive under Adpositions).

Nouns with two syllables which may double as verbs tend to have initial stress while the verb form has final stress, but this tendency is by no means a rule.

Indicating Plurality

While there is no specific plural form of nouns, there is a plural particle, ak-, which can be optionally prefixed to the noun stem to specify plurality. ak- is never used when a number is present or any other indicator that would already imply a plural.

For example:

téfʌðu ‘table’
aktéfʌðu ‘tables’
téfʌðu jamp ‘four tables’
téfʌðu lexét ‘many tables’

Adpositions

Adpositions in Maltcégj are generally suffixed to the nouns they modify. They undergo very little inflection (so it is not considered a case system per se), but there is some variation in some nouns which end in vowels, as shown below. (Nouns can only end in the vowels 〈i〉, 〈a〉, 〈ǫ〉, 〈o〉, and 〈u〉. Nouns cannot end in 〈e〉 or 〈y〉. Nouns ending in 〈ʌ〉 take regular consonant endings except before and -ʌk, where the final 〈ʌ〉 of the noun becomes 〈l〉. Nouns ending in 〈ʀ〉 take regular consonant endings except before , which becomes -hʀ. Most changes, however, simply involve adding an epenthetic 〈h〉 before the prefix or adding a diæresis or dot to the vowel of the adposition.

C#- [i]#- [a,ǫ]#- [o,u]#- Example Preposition Type Eng. Ger. Lat. Esp. Notes
- -i- -a- -o- ek klag gnir.
The book is green.’
Nominative - (Nom.) (Nom.) - Subject.
a -iȧ -aha -oȧ dydkulóm jǫg klága.
‘I saw the book.’
Accusative - (Acc.) (Acc.) -n Direct object.
-iȧð -ahað -oȧð ‘to the book’ Dative to zu (+ Dat.) ad al Indirect object.
ai -iȧi -ahai -oȧi ‘through (the middle of) the book’ Perlative through durch (+ Acc.) per
aj -iȧj -ahaj -oȧj ‘during/throughout the book’ Temporal Durative during während (+ Gen.) dum
ala -iȧla -ahala -oȧla ‘between the books’ Intrative between, among zwischen, unter (+ Dat.) inter Automatically implies plural.
alm -iȧlm -ahalm -oȧlm ‘without the book’ Abesso-caritive without ohne (+ Acc.) sine sen
alx -iȧlx -ahalx -oȧlx ‘on (the side of) the book’ Adessive on an (+ Dat.)
ap -iȧp -ahap -oȧp ‘on (top of) the book’ Superessive on auf (+ Dat.) sur
arak -iȧrak -aharak -oȧrak ‘(leaning) against the book’ Revertive against gegen (+ Acc.) versus kontraux
av -iȧv -ahav -oȧv ‘after the book’ Postessive following folgend, zunächst post post
-iëð -aheð -oëð ‘around the book’ Circumessive around um (+ Acc.) circum cxirkaux
eki -iëki -aheki -oëki ‘up to/until the book’ Allato-terminative until bis (+ Acc.)
eloï -iëloï -aheloï -oëloï ‘about/concerning the book’ about über (+ Dat.) pri
em -iëm -ahem -oëm ‘over/above the book’ over über (+ Dat.) supra super
ei -iëi -ahei -oëi ‘in the book’ Inessive in in (+ Dat.) in(tra) en
fra -ifra -afra -ofra ‘with books’ (as in ‘strewn’) with mit (+ Dat.) kun
i -ihi -ahi -oï ‘for the book’ Benefactive for für (+ Acc.) por
-ihið -ahið -oïð ‘before/prior to the book’ Temporal before bevor (+ Dat.) ante
ij -ihij -ahij -oïj ‘after the books’ Temporal after, according to nach (+ Dat.) secundum laux
ili -ihili -ahili -oïli ‘next to/beside/near the book’ Apudessive next to neben (+ Dat.) prope apud
im -ihim -ahim -oïm ‘along(side) the books’ Vialis along (Dat.+) entlang
is -ihis -ahis -oïs ‘instead of the book’ Excambiative instead of statt (+ Gen.) anstataux
it -ihit -ahit -oït ‘behind the book’ behind hinter (+ Dat.) pone, post malantaux
-ihiþ -ahiþ -oïþ ‘under the book’ Subessive under unter (+ Dat.) subter sub
lef -ilef -alef -olef ‘like the books’ Comparative like wie (+ Nom.) kiel
ʌ -il -al -ol ‘by the book’ Agentive by von (+ Dat.) per
ʌk -ilk -alk -olk ‘by means of the book’ Instrumental with mit (+ Dat.) cum per
o -iȯ -aho -oho ‘from the book’ Delative from von (+ Dat.) de
oc -iȯc -ahoc -ohoc ‘at the time of the book’ Temporal at the time of an (+ Acc.) cxe
ok -iȯk -ahok -ohȯk ‘with the book’ Commitative with mit (+ Dat.) simul kun
ol -iȯl -ahol -ohȯl ‘except for the book’ Exclusive except for außer (+ Dat.)
om -iȯm -ahom -ohȯm ‘in front of the book’ in front of vor (+ Dat.) prae antaux
ǫg -iǫ̇g -ahǫg -ohǫ̇g ‘anti-book’ Contrative against, anti wider (+ Acc.), -feindlich contra kontraux
ʀ -ihʀ -ahʀ -ohʀ ‘pro-book’ for, pro pro- (+ Acc.), -freundlich pro
ul -iu̇l -ahul -ou̇l ‘(made) of books’ Exessive made from aus (+ Dat.) ex el
ut -iu̇t -ahut -ou̇t ‘out of the book’ Elative out of aus (+ Dat.) ex el
vul -ivul -avul -ovul ‘because of the book’ Causal because of wegen (+ Gen.) propter pro
u uï- uȧ- uȯ- ‘-’s book, the book belonging to’ Possessed ‘s, of (Gen.), von (Gen.) de

Adjectives

Adjectives in Maltcégj generally follow the noun they modify.

wíðoc calíc
sky blue
‘blue sky’

However, when an adjective is used as a copula, it may stand on its own as a predicate to ek (‘to be’), or be treated as a verb in its own right.

ek gnída gnir (or) gnir gnída
is grass green is-green grass
‘The grass is green.’

Comparison, Superference, and Equation

In English there are two distinct ways to create the comparative and superlative when talking about adjectives: By adding the words “more” and “most” to adjectives of Latin derivation, and by adding the suffixes “-er” and “-est” to those of Germanic origin. (Granted, this is a little bit simplified, but that’s the general idea.) Maltcégj only has one word for each of these types of comparative and superlative, but there are a few other ways that we cheat our way around in English. I also include here the equative phrase “as … as” and the negative comparative and superlative “less” and “least.”

narán most, -est
nan more, -er
amán as…as, as much, equally
pan less
palán least

All of these words precede the adjectives they modify, unless the adjective is used explicitly as a verb, and therefore the subject of the sentence. It is not uncommon or incorrect in this case to use ek as the verb and to treat the adjective as the object. When comparing the qualities of a specific noun, the postposition is used as we would use “than” in English (or “as” when used with amán).

When any of these are used in combination with an adjective that begins with /b/ or /p/, the final /n/ changes to /m/, e.g. pan+bjólet=pambjólet ‘worse’. If the adjective begins with /m/, /n/ is elided entirely, e.g. nan+mot=namót ‘emptier’. (See Phonology.)

Predicative Verbal
ek pel akadínahað mes kúluï narandíð
(is she PL-sister-than her-own all most-beautiful)
dið pel narán akadínahað mes kúluï
(is-beautiful she most PL-sister-than her-own all)
‘She is the most beautiful of all her sisters.’
ek pul janád nambjólet
(is he today more-good)
bjólet pul janád nan
(is-good he today more)
‘He is better today.’
ek paj wíðoc amancalíc
(is it sky-as as-much-blue)
calíc paj amán wíðoc
(is-blue it as-much as-sky)
‘It’s as blue as the sky.’
ek paj vlágaran panxac
(is it school-than less-difficult)
xac paj vlágaran pan
(is-difficult it school-than less)
It’s less difficult than school.
ek klag palambokúra
(is book least-favorite)
bokúra klag palán
(is-favorite book least)
It’s (my) least favorite book.

Verbs

As Maltcégj is a “VSO” language, most sentences begin with a verb. Verbs can only be preceded by conjunctions and particles (most of which are prefixed to the verb).

There is no inflection on verbs; all tenses, moods, aspects, voices, and modalities are conveyed by particles, which operate much like they do in Mandarin Chinese. (The equivalent Mandarin particles are included in the table below for further clarity.)

Particle TAMV E.g.
vrei Imperative vreitcók! Go!
men 吧,請 Jussive mentcók. Please go.
cʌþ Interrogative cʌþ tcok mélem?[9] Are you going?
bleg 不,沒 Negative blegtcók mélem. You’re not going.
- Subjunctive lǫtcég kleg tcók mélem. It is important that you go.
dyd Past dydtcók mélem. You went.
nag Future nagtcók mélem. You will go.
dla 就,剛 Immediacy (always combined with other particles – see below)
kwarþ Perfect kwarþtcók mélem. You have gone.
blai 正在 Progressive blaitcók mélem. You are (in the process of) going.
kan Continuative kantcók mélem. You are still going.
gak - Habitual gaktcók mélem. You (often/regularly) go.
kla - Terminative klatcók mélem. You have stopped going.
guc - Inceptive guctcók mélem. You have started to go.
rak Passive rakulóm mélem. You are seen.

The particles can be used in many combinations to create new tenses, moods, and aspects, but they must always be used in the very specific order above. Some of these combinations have undergone epenthesis, creating seemingly unique particles. Some examples:

Particle TAMV E.g.
nakwarþ (nag + kwarþ) Future Perfect nakwarþtcók mélem. You will have gone.
nagblai Future progressive nagblaitcók mélem. You will be going.
naglǫ Future subjunctive lǫtcég kleg naglǫtcók mélem. It is important that you would go.
dydnag Conditional dydnagtcók mélem. You would go.
dygwarþ (dyd + kwarþ) Pluperfect dygwarþtcók mélem. You had gone.
dydblai Imperfect dydblaitcók mélem. You were going.
dydlǫ Past subjunctive lǫtcég kleg dydlǫtcók mélem. It was important that you went.
dydnakwarþ Conditional perfect dydnakwarþtcók mélem. You would have gone.
dydla (dyd + dla) Immediate past dydlatcók mélem. You just went.
nagdla Immediate future nagdlatcók mélem. You are about to go.
dydnagdla Immediate future II dydnagdlatcók mélem. You were about to go.
cleglǫ[10] Cohortative cleglǫtcók mélem. You’d better go.

There are more, but one step at a time. You can plug many of these together, but be certain to retain the strict order:

vreimencʌþblegclegdydnagdlakwarþblaikangakklagucrak

Adverbs

Adverbs in Maltcégj normally immediately follow the finite verb. (The exception are adverbial phrases and temporal adverbs, which immediately follow the subject.)

In order to create adverbs from adjectives, the particle lef- is prefixed (much as one would add –ly in English or –ment(e) in the Romance languages).

Measurement of Time

As discussed briefly in the section on Correlatives and Pro-Forms, time words can be modified with three particles: la- (‘past’), ja- (‘present’), or þa- (‘future’). When combined with a noun that begins with a vowel, the a- of each prefix is dropped.

ja- is a contraction of the older (now obsolete) proximal deixis jála, which is also contracted to jla- in some of the other Correlatives (see). Similarly, þa- is a contraction of the distal deixis þúla, which also contracts to þla- or þra-. (The older medial deixis was ðóra, which is unrelated to la-, but still used as contracted ðra- in other Correlatives.)

Some of the most common constructions are listed below:

ðlai ‘time’ laðlai ‘then, back then’ jaðlai ‘now’ þaðlai ‘in the future’
nad ‘day’ lanad ‘yesterday’ janad ‘today’ þanad ‘tomorrow’
temét ‘morning’ latemét ‘yesterday morning’ jatemét ‘this morning’ þatemét ‘tomorrow morning’
bará ‘afternoon’ labará ‘yesterday afternoon’ jabará ‘this afternoon’ þabará ‘tomorrow afternoon’
ápten ‘evening’ lápten ‘yesterday evening’ jápten ‘this evening’ þápten ‘tomorrow evening’
beríc ‘night’ laberíc ‘last night’ jaberíc ‘tonight’ þaberíc ‘tomorrow night’
danjád ‘week’ ladanjád ‘last week’ jadanjád ‘this week’ þadanjád ‘next week’
rúma ‘month’ larúma ‘last month’ jarúma ‘this month’ þarúma ‘next month’
avíl ‘year’ lavíl ‘last year’ javíl ‘this year’ þavíl ‘next year’

These prefixes can also be used in with the word ðlai (above) to form adjectives meaning ‘past’, ‘present’, and ‘future’, respectively, as well as arán ‘place’, (which has some specific connotations depending on how it’s used).

Sentence Structure

The word order in Maltcégj is very strict. Because all aspects of the language are indicated by particles, there is no need to change the word order. Sentences are formed using a VSO structure; that is, verb – subject – object. This is the basis of every sentence, but there can be more to a sentence than just these components. Other components of a sentence are treated just as rigidly. Every clause will flow in the same order, even if it does not contain all of these elements:

Conjunction – Verbal Particle – Primary Verb – Adverb – Secondary Verb – Subject – Direct Object – Temporal Clause – Spatial Clause – Indirect Object

Some examples:

I nicely gave the book to the man at his house this morning.

I [subject] nicely [adverb, i.e. how the action is taking place] gave [verb, past tense] the book [direct object, i.e. what is being given] to the man [indirect object] at his house [spatial clause, i.e. where the action is taking place] this morning [temporal clause, i.e. when the action is taking place].

If you rearrange these into the prescribed word order above, you get:

I nicely gave the book to the man at his house this morning.
gave nicely I the book this morning at his house to the man
dyd-gélk lef-breuð jǫg klág-a ja-temét pul u-márga-h-íli þád-
PST-give ADV-nice 1sg book-ACC PROX-morning he POSS-house-[ligature]-APUD man-DAT
dydgélk lefbréuð jǫg klága jatemét pul umárgahíli þádað

You need never deviate from this word order. To make an indicative statement into a question (whereby in English we would reverse the subject and the verb), simply add the particle cʌþ before the verb.

Aside from these sentence elements, there are a few other word order concerns to note:

  • Adjectives always follow the nouns they modify (as in romance languages).
  • Numbers also follow the nouns they modify.
  • Adpositions always follow the nouns they modify (except u-).
  • Phrases are “left-headed,” including numbers, possessives, genitives, adjectives, and others.
  • When an adjective is used as the predicate of a sentence, it can be treated as a verb; however, you can also use the verb ek (‘to be’).

Vocabulary

The official corpus of the Maltcégj lexicon can be found here.

Greetings and Common Phrases

Swadesh List

For those of you who like this sort of thing!

  Maltcégj English   Maltcégj English   Maltcégj English
001 jǫg I 070 bláka ẏála feather 139 kyvrén to count
002 mélem, mélmine you 071 krámuï hair (on head) 140 ðak to say
003 pul, pel, paj he, she, it 072 talp head 141 nowél to sing
004 jalk, jǫ́lmin we 073 ǫx ear 142 leikáþ to play
005 mélem, mélmine you 074 wáfo eye 143 andakúru to float
006 parþ they 075 yéfu nose 144 vlíran to flow
007 úli this 076 ódɮo mouth 145 bral to freeze
008 úla that 077 ɮat tooth 146 páþki to swell
009 jarán here 078 bvlað tongue 147 jadíȯ sun
010 ðrarán there 079 kraul fingernail 148 rúma moon
011 mlað who 080 ðeup foot 149 dlyn star
012 mlak what 081 lekc leg 150 ðbreugj water
013 mlarán where 082 ilǫx knee 151 blǫp rain
014 mlai when 083 rul hand 152 vótma river
015 mlið how 084 fwi wing 153 strak lake
016 bleg not 085 rótclep belly, abdomen 154 jbram sea
017 kúluï all 086 aníct guts, entrails 155 gáltam salt
018 lexét many 087 xǫbj neck 156 éþryl stone
019 mẏen some 088 gjol back 157 cweix sand
020 puláu few 089 frauct breast 158 dvem dust
021 fórwið other 090 báxef heart 159 mócara earth, soil, dirt
022 am one 091 vákcer liver 160 amléun cloud
023 dai two 092 ra to drink 161 nir fog, mist
024 tran three 093 go to eat 162 wíðoc sky
025 jamp four 094 gnac to bite 163 batár wind
026 frem five 095 ɮuk to suck 164 cic snow
027 bórgahok big, large 096 pfatɮ to spit 165 cuf ice
028 kóhok long 097 bvolv to vomit 166 mruk smoke
029 ivdáhok wide, broad 098 hu blow 167 gapák fire
030 nóstok thick 099 ahá to breathe 168 ɮið ash, ashes
031 ʌráuk heavy 100 hahár to laugh 169 brálʌ burn
032 ílu, pélki small, little 101 kulóm to see 170 bweið path, road, trail
033 kóhalm short 102 daxó to hear 171 mágreb mountain
034 ivdáhalm narrow 103 apþán to know 172 djódei red
035 nóstalm thin 104 bliv to think 173 gnir green
036 glam woman 105 ɮeum to smell 174 kféivrei yellow
037 þad man 106 cáxok to fear 175 kéiliþ white
038 hanák person 107 kaiþ to sleep 176 ẏákni black
039 ráta child 108 baldréf to live 177 beríc night
040 ẏána glam wife 109 þlax to die 178 nad day
041 ẏána þad husband 110 klógex to kill 179 avíl year
042 krýstʌ mother 111 blokþ to fight 180 moin hot (weather)
043 tym father 112 ranév to hunt 181 níli cold
044 báldir animal 113 txatɮ to hit 182 nalp full
045 ðbruk fish 114 xóreica to cut 183 dweg new
046 ẏála bird 115 cpiþ to split 184 velk old
047 mrag dog 116 styx to stab, to pierce 185 bjólet good
048 ylk louse 117 skis to scratch 186 xrǫx bad
049 cu snake 118 ðeptán to dig 187 xax rotten
050 covói worm 119 ðbreuck to swim 188 dirty
051 víktro tree 120 fwi to fly 189 platúk straight
052 kfei forest, woods 121 ðeup to walk 190 tcápa round
053 roc stick 122 tcǫc come 191 clix sharp
054 ána fruit 123 plak to lie 192 me’ dull (of a knife)
055 dat seed 124 malá to sit 193 glai smooth
056 ároc víktro leaf 125 sto to stand 194 úlak wet
057 renáþ root 126 þlog to turn 195 kat dry
058 ha bark (of tree) 127 padj to fall 196 drug correct, right
059 máru flower 128 gelk to give 197 min near
060 gnída grass 129 rǫþ to hold 198 naul far
061 lwánde rope 130 fástnar to squeeze 199 ẏau right, right-hand
062 ha skin 131 fneuc to rub 200 xwa left, left-hand
063 méiza flesh, meat 132 cwuc to wash 201 -að, dialx at
064 sfarð blood 133 cwyc to wipe 202 -ei in
065 wʌf bone 134 mrudj to pull 203 -ok with
066 lat grease, fat 135 jdrom to push 204 ei and
067 ar egg 136 ẏakt to throw 205 ceil if
068 bict horn 137 doklím to tie, bind 206 ðrímiëm because
069 bísẏa tail 138 gwanós to sew 207 blynþ name

Easter Eggs

Just some fun coincidences, borrowings, and malamanteaux that I’ve collected here:

  • afáik ‘to the best of my knowledge’ ― an evidential particle based on the initialism AFAIK (“as far as I know”).
  • ároc víktro ‘leaf’ – literally “tree feather.” The word ároc is no longer used in any other context.
  • bévlo ‘particle, grain, atom’ - from Bevlo Particles, cf. IV.
  • bjályt éþryl ‘hyrax, Hyracoidea species.’ - literally, “rock rabbit.”
  • bláka ẏála ‘feather’ – literally “bird leaf.” The word bláka is no longer used in any other context.
  • dat ‘seed’ – from ‘dot’.
  • edvín ‘to rage’ – from Edvin S.
  • éþryl ulát ‘tar, petroleum, asphalt’ - literally, “rock lard.”
  • fýcnet ‘cishet’ - Auto-correct, man...
  • ik vloj ‘chin’ - literally, “face corner.”
  • máru kraul ‘artichoke’ - literally, “fingernail flower.”
  • méilat ‘cat, Felis domesticus’ - from Melate T.
  • núton ‘target, goal, aim’ - from núton salméilo ‘Isaac Newton’ - literally, “apple target.”
  • salgebúra ‘shock or revulsion over something stupid and offensive’ – a malamanteau of Hebrew גבורה and S.L.G.B.R. which stands for something else stupid and offensive which I’ll keep to myself.
  • salméilo wʌf akɮátbon appétit’, which is an eggcorn for salméilol fak ɮat, ‘may the apple be tempting to the tooth’ but has now become standardized. It literally means ‘bone apple teeth’, itself an English eggcorn for bon appétit.
  • tcápa ‘ring, circle’ – Goa’uld chappa-ai. (Originally that meaning was further extended by the postposition ai, wherein tcápaai meant ‘through the ring,’ but this was later broken by a phonological rule which rendered it tcápahai.
  • tcélo ‘lavender, light purple’ - from cello, which is not quite a viola, like how violet also isn't.
  • Most kinship terms are names for members of my direct family or words that describe them. Just a few examples are:
    • adína ‘sister’ - This is the name of my sister, Adina.
    • katír ‘parternal grandparents’ - The plural form, akatír is from my home town’s old High School basketball team, the Halcotteers, which later came to be used locally to refer to any old folks from that town (i.e. from the era when we still had a High School). (The High School was actually in Fleischmanns, not Halcott, but that’s another story.)
    • ǫ́bri ‘niece’ – the name of my niece, Aubrey.
    • zadjámindz ‘great grandparents, mother’s father’s parents’ – Because my Bavarian great-grandparents, Katherine and Heinrich were “ze Germans.”



  1. 〈ʀ〉 only occurs as a syllabic; it is treated as a vowel.
  2. 〈ʌ〉 only occurs as a syllabic; it is treated as a vowel.
  3. 〈ɮ〉 becomes devoiced to /ɬ/ when it occurs adjacent to an unvoiced obstruent (most frequently in the clusters 〈pɮ〉, 〈tɮ〉, and 〈kɮ〉), e.g. txa [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’.
  4. While technically liquids, 〈ʌ〉 and 〈ʀ〉 never occur non-syllabically, and are better treated as vowels.
  5. While blai may still be found in some texts, it is not generally used due to its homophonous relationship with the progressive particle (see Verbs).
  6. The word hímiem (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, frulúþ.
  7. jláran is gradually becoming obsolete and has been broadly replaced by járan.
  8. The word hímiem (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, frulúþ.
  9. Unlike other particles, cʌþ does not combine with the verb; it stands on its own as an individual word.
  10. cléglǫ is a contraction of lǫtcég kleg ‘it is important that’.