Valthungian

Valthungian is an East Germanic language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with Gothic, though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of Wulfila. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths (or Gutai or Gutþiudōs), and that their language was mutually intelligible with other dialects of Gothic. The Valthungian relationship to “Classical Gothic” can be thought of as analogous to the relationship between Modern High German and Old High German – that is, not a direct lineage, but the modern languages are descended from neighboring dialects spoken by people who would likewise have considered themselves to be “Gutisks,” in the case of Valthungian, or “Diotisk” in the case of German.

While Valthungian shares many of the areal changes common to North and West Germanic languages, it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalisation, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Romance and Slavic languages. Modern Valthungian can be traced back to Middle Valthungian (spoken from around 1200‒1600ᴀᴅ) through Old Valthungian (800‒1200ᴀᴅ) and ultimately to Griutungi, which would likely have been thought of as a dialect of Gothic (400‒800ᴀᴅ).

The name “Valthungian” comes from the name Valthungi – a Latin term likely derived from a pre-Old Valthungian name *Walþungae – meaning “Forest-dweller,” likely a branch of or related to the Thervingians (idem), though the Valthungian people refer to themselves as Grējutungišk, which is probably from an earlier Griutuggs (the name of an Ostrogothic tribe living along the northern shore of the Black Sea), but which underwent some semantic reanalysis over the generations and came to mean ‘the grey-tongued ones’. In turn, they call their language Grējutungiška Rasta ‘Grey-tonguish Language’ or just So Grējuga Tunga ‘the Grey Tongue’.

Valthungian Vocabulary

Phonology

Phonemic Inventory

Consonants

	Labial	Dental	Coronal	Palatal	Dorsal
Plosive	p · b [p~pʰ · b]	t · d [t̪~t̪ʰ · d̪]		č · ǧ [ʨ · ʥ]	k · g [k~kʰ · ɡ]
Fricative	f · v [f · v]	ð · þ [ð · θ]	s · [s]	š · ž [ɕ · ʑ]	h · [h]
Nasal	· m [m]	· n [n̪]			· n [ŋ]
Approximant	· w/u [w]	· l [l̪]	· r [r~ɾ]	· j [j]

Vowels

Any vowel can be short or long, and the quality of the vowel does not differ other than length. Long vowels must carry primary or secondary stress (see Stress). Orthographically, the historic long mid-vowels are realized as diphthongs.

	Short Vowels			Long Vowels			Diphthongs
	Front	Back		Front	Back		Front	Back
Closed	i · y [i · y]	u [u]		ī · ȳ [iː · yː]	ū [uː]	Closed-to-
Mid	e · œ [e̞ · ø̞]	o [o̞]		ǣ · œ̄ [e̞ː · ø̞ː]	ǭ [o̞ː]	Mid-to-	œu [œy̑]	eu [ɛu̯]
Open		a [ɑ]			ā [ɑː]	Open-to-	ē [ai̯]	ō, au [au̯]

There are four diphthongs in Valthungian; the two low-to-high diphthongs are considered long vowels, as they are developments of earlier [eː] and [oː], though [ɑu̯] also arises from another process. (See #Orthography & Romanization and #Historical Phonology.)

Phonotactics

Compounding Strategies

There are several compounding strategies for Valthungian words, but most boil down to understanding the inherent (and often no longer obvious) stem vowel of the words being compounded.

Generally in compounds, the final element of the compound retains its inherent grammatical properties, while the first element is reduced. For example, if an i-stem noun is compounded to an a-stem noun, the result is an a-stem noun; if a u-stem noun is incorporated into a class I weak verb, the result is a class I weak verb.

While there are some nuances in how the first element is formed (stay tuned for a fancy table I haven’t finished filling out yet!), a basic rule could be:

1. If the stem contains an i, e, or j, the compound links with –i-.
2. If the stem contains a u, o, or w, the compound links with –u-.
3. If the stem is weak, add –n- if the following element begins with a vowel.
4. If the second element begins with an unstressed vowel, no compounding link is used.
5. …otherwise, link with –a-.

Stress

Modern Valthungian is a stress-timed language. Stress is very regular and almost explicitly iambic in nature. In fact, in Late Middle and Early Modern Valthungian, an epenthetic schwa was added to many words which contain two sequential stressed syllables, while a syllable was often deleted from sequential unstressed syllables.

As is the case with most Germanic languages, stress is usually initial except in the case of words with unstressed prefixes and a very small collection of recent borrowings which have maintained non-initial stress.

In writing, stress is indicated with a dot over the stressed vowel only in cases where stress is non-initial. (In Romanisation, an acute diacritic is used.) Long vowels, ⟨œ⟩, and ⟨y⟩ are not marked, because they cannot occur unstressed. In Valthungian orthography (but not in romanization), the letters ⟨ǣ⟩ and ⟨ǭ⟩ may sometimes be marked merely because they do not have the classic macron which marks other long vowels.

Consider the stress and use or lack of diacritics in the following examples:

• gadrynis /ɡaˈdry.nis/ ‘symphony’
• garǣts /ɡaˈreːts/ ‘correct’
• instéðins /inˈsteðins/ ‘ingredient’
• anþrúsk /anˈθɾusk/ ‘inquiry’

Alternations

Voicing Alternation

This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular knife and plural knives, or the noun strife and the verb strive.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ⟨f⟩, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ⟨b⟩ used elsewhere, e.g. giban, ‘to give’, gaf, ‘gave’. Likewise the relationship between ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨d⟩. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian:

• v → f
• ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant.
• ž → s

The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:

• ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. þlǣfs ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive þlǣvis.
• ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. blōþ ‘blood’, but genitive blōðis.
• ⟨f⟩ occurs when word-final or before ⟨t⟩ in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. gaf, gaft, ‘gave’, but infinitive givna.
• ⟨þ⟩ also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ⟨s⟩ before ⟨t⟩ in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. biǧin ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit baþ but second-person bast.
• The implications for ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ž⟩ can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ⟨s⟩ throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.

Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ from earlier ⟨h⟩ which is not affected by this rule.

Palatalisation

Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:

• Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ⟨d⟩ or ⟨g⟩ become palatalised before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems). E.g. Griutungi *dags ‘day’, *winds ‘wind’ become daǧ, winǧ. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
• • A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ⟨j⟩, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. (However, inflections which did not originally have ⟨j⟩ in the stem maintain their original consonant, which makes it important to understand the historical implications of Siever’s Law in Germanic.) In these cases, the following occurs:
  • d or g + j → ǧ
  • t or k + j → č
  • s or h + j → š
  • z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ⟨z⟩ eventually became ⟨ž⟩.)

Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.

On an orthographic level, where other consonants may usually be followed by vowel clusters like –ia or –io, palatal consonants assimilate the /i/ of such clusters. For example, the dative singular and the nominative and accusative plurals of neuter j-stem strong nouns are normally formed by umlaut of the stressed vowel and an ending of –ia, but those roots ending in the above consonants undergo palatalization and only get an ending of –a. E.g.

No Palatalization	With Palatalization
anþe → enþia ‘forehead’	ambāte → ambǣča ‘office’
hrežne → hrežnia ‘brain’	drenge → drenǧa ‘coconut’
þljuðre → þljuðria ‘wing’	lēse → lēša ‘new moon’
tangle → tenglia ‘comet’	gapīke → gapīča ‘dumpling’
fōðre → fœuðria ‘vanilla bean’	rikuže → rikuža ‘eclipse’

[b]/[v] Alternation

A less common alternation is that of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, there is a shift of ⟨v⟩ to ⟨b⟩; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ⟨j⟩ are able to shift from ⟨b⟩ to ⟨v⟩ when intervocalic, but those with ⟨j⟩ are blocked from spirantizing.

For example, the adjective drœuvis ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi *drōbīs, cf. Gothic 𐌳𐍂𐍉𐌱𐌴𐌹𐍃 (drōbeis)) has the dative singular form drœubia (from *drōbja).

Umlaut

Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language, and may appear analogically in certain words.

• The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation are not umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalisation are umlauted.
• The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy.
• Verbs ending in –jan in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with –in in Valthungian.

Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:

• a → e - *satjan ‘to set’ → sečin
• ā → ǣ - *hlahjan ‘to laugh’ → þlǣšin
• ǭ (Got. ⟨áu⟩) → œ̄ - *hǭsjan ‘to hear’ → hœ̄šin
• o (Got. ⟨aú⟩) → œ - *þorsjan ‘to thirst’ → þrœšin
• ō → œu - *hwōtjan ‘to threaten’ → huœučin
• u → y - *hugjan ‘to think’ → hyǧin
• ū → ȳ - *hrūkjan ‘to crow’ → þrȳčin

NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, front umlaut, or i-mutation.

Coronal Consonant Assimilation

This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ⟨t⟩ or ⟨st⟩, the former consonant ⟨s⟩. This accounts for the English word best, from earlier betst, from *batest. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ǧutna ‘to pour’ and biǧin ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of gǭst ‘you poured’ and bast ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **gǭtt and **baþt.

Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking

Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like *bagms and *aþn, and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ending -an to -n. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi *brōþar ‘brother’ (Gothic brōþar) and later Old Valthungian brouðar became Middle Valthungian brôðʀ with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian brōðra. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of ⟨a⟩after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state.

The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:

• Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in –m have the ending of –am rather than –ma, e.g. vroms ‘worm’ has the dative plural of vromam rather than **vromma.
• Masculine strong a-stem nouns ending in –n have the the dative plural ending of –am (as above) and the accusative plural ending of –ans rather than –nas, e.g. ǭns ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ǭnam and the accusative plural of ǭnans rather than **ǭnma and **ǭnnas.
• Strong a-stem adjectives ending in –n have a masculine accusative singular of –an rather than –na, e.g. ǣns → ǣnan, not **ǣnna
• Strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs ending in –nan:
  • Have the infinitive form -an rather than –na, e.g. skīnan ‘to shine’, not **skīnna.
  • Have the third person plural present indicative -anþ rather than -naþ, e.g. skīnan ‘to shine’ → skīnanþ ‘they shine’, not **skīnnaþ.
  • Have the present participle forms in -anþ rather than -naþ, e.g. skīnanþatma, not **skīnnaþatma.
  • Have the third person plural imperative -anþa, rather than -naþa, e.g. skīnanþa, not **skīnnaþa.

Assimilation of [r] and [s]

Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.

The change initially applied to “light”-syllable nouns with roots ending in /s/ or /r/ in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final /z/ in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *weraz, *drusiz → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *werz, *drusz → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *wers, *druss → (r/s-Assimilation) → Griutungi *wer, *drus (cf. Gothic waír /wer/, drus).

Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other /r/-final nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in /r/ do not take an (additional) /s/ in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. *bērs → bēr ‘boar’, *stiur → sčur ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic *tersaz ‘mentula’ which became *ters in Griutungi as expected, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ter in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)

Affix Anaptyxis

When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. This is just part of a larger change in the general structure of the language in which many unstressed syllables appeared unbidden in Late Middle and Early Modern Valthungian causing the language to be almost entirely iambic. In Modern Valthungian all stressed syllables (primary and secondary) must de separated by an unstressed syllable.

Some of the most frequent are:

• af+f: Griutungi *affilhan → afaflījan ‘to hide away’
• fer+r: Griutungi *ferrinnan → ferarítnan ‘to attain’
• un+n: Griutungi *unnutans → unanútans ‘unused; useless’

However, the prefix us- becomes ut-: Griutungi *ussandjan → utsenǧin ‘to send out’

Writing System

Alphabet & Pronunciation

Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the romanisation I use for them in the second row. This romanisation is otherwise used throughout this article.

IPA Name Name Meaning A a [ɑ] aska ‘ash’ Ǣ ǣ [e̞ː] ǣjus ‘horse’ B b [b] breka ‘birch’ G g [ɡ] giva ‘gift’ Ǧ ǧ [ʤ] ǧus ‘beast’ D d [d] daǧ ‘day’ Ð ð [ð] ǣði ‘mother’ E e [e̞] eǧa ‘blade’ Ž ž [ʒ] akuže ‘axe’ H h [h~x] hagla ‘hail’ Þ þ [θ] þronus ‘thorn’ I i [i] igil ‘hedgehog’ J j [j] jēr ‘year’

IPA Name Name Meaning K k [k~kʰ] kune ‘family’ L l [l] lagus ‘lake’ M m [m] matna ‘person’ N n [n] nǭþs ‘need’ O o [o̞] ore ‘riverbank’ P p [p~pʰ] preðra ‘chance’ R r [r] reða ‘earth’ S s [s] sōgila ‘sun’ Š š [ʃ] šuge ‘colour ’ T t [t~tʰ] tījus ‘Teu ’ Č č [ʧ] čus ‘choice ’ U u [u] ungula ‘owl’ V v [v] ivra ‘boar’

IPA Name Name Meaning F f [f] fǣjo ‘cattle’ W w [w] wynia ‘joy’ Œ œ [ø̞̞] rœča ‘farmer’ Y y [y] ynča ‘ounce’ Ǭ ǭ [o̞ː] ǭsus ‘ox’ Non-Alphabetic Variants Ā ā [ɑː] āde ‘egg’ Ē ē [ɑi̯] ēmate ‘ant’ Ī ī [iː] īs ‘ice’ Ō ō [ɑu̯] ōðla ‘inheritance’ Ū ū [uː] ūrus ‘aurochs’ Œ̄ œ̄ [ø̞ː] œ̄ža ‘fortune’ Ȳ ȳ [yː] ȳfti ‘custom’

Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, ⟨ā⟩ is equivalent to ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ē⟩ to ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ī⟩ to ⟨ii⟩, and so on. (The long vowels ⟨ǣ⟩ and ⟨ǭ⟩ are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.)

(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a romanisation of the letters shown in the table above.)

Orthography

The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:

1. The letter ⟨n⟩ before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ⟨ng⟩ is [ŋɡ] and ⟨nk⟩ is [ŋk]. (E.g. drinkna [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
   1. In combinations where ⟨ng⟩ is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: ⟨ngm⟩ is [ŋm] and ⟨ngn⟩ is [ŋn]. (E.g. gangna [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ⟨mbn⟩, ⟨mbm⟩, ⟨ndm⟩, and ⟨ndn⟩; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
2. In the combination ⟨hw⟩ (i.e. ⟨hu⟩ followed by a vowel), ⟨h⟩ is realised as [x].
3. The combination ⟨rju⟩ is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. frjusna [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
4. The diphthong ⟨eu⟩ is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. sneugna [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
5. The diphthong ⟨œu⟩ is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. grœunis [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.)
6. For some speakers, word-final ⟨þs⟩ may be realised as [t̪s].
7. For some speakers, medial ⟨tl⟩ (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realised as [dɮ].
8. Inexplicably, the letter wynia, while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as ⟨u⟩ (i.e. ⟨du⟩, ⟨tu⟩, ⟨þu⟩, ⟨hu⟩, ⟨gu⟩,⟨ku⟩ and ⟨su⟩.)
   1. This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so iþ + wītna → iþwītna, not **iþuītna.

Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:

1. The stress is not on the first syllable.
   1. (By default, stress falls on the primary syllable.)
2. The stressed vowel is short.
   1. (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the Middle Valthungian period.)
3. The stressed vowel is not ⟨œ⟩ or ⟨y⟩.
   1. (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i-umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)

For example, iníla ‘excuse’, akéčim 'even so'; but garǣts ‘correct’ or gavrœčin ‘to handle’.

Orthographic Variants

There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation.

• In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial unstressed syllable is marked with a grave diacritic. This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.:
  • ǧukospríngna ‘to leap up’ → ǧùkospringna or ǧùkospríngna
  • gadrynis ‘symphony’ → gàdrynis or gàdrýnis
  • miðlǣði ‘sympathy’ → mìðlǣði or mìðlǣ́ði (sometimes mìðlǽði)
• ⟨w⟩ may be used in place of word-initial ⟨v⟩ or pre-vocalic ⟨u⟩ to represent /w/ as a more direct transliteration of the letter vynia. There is no logical or efficient reason for this transliteration to be split up the way it is in the standard language: Its existence is purely aesthetic, and many people are not as interested in aesthetics as efficiency.
• Conversely, there are some who romanise jēr as ⟨i⟩ rather than as ⟨j⟩, likely out of spite towards those who use ⟨w⟩ as above.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

The genitive pronouns form the base of the possessive determiners, but the third person non-reflexive genitives are never inflected. The third person singular and plural reflexive pronouns are identical. The non-singular pronouns may also take a reciprocal particle mīsa, roughly equivalent to ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
1sg	ik	mīn	mis	mik	I, my, (to) me, me
2sg	þū	þīn	þis	þik	thou, thy, (to) thee, thee
3sg.masc	is	is	itma	in	he, his, (to) him, him
3sg.neu	it			it	it, its, (to) it, it
3sg.fem	sī	ižas	iža	ī, iža	she, her, (to) her, her
3sg.refl	-	sīn	sis	sik	himself, herself, itself, &c
1du	wit	unkra	unkis	unk	we two, our, (to) us, us
2du	ǧut	inkur	inkus	inko	you/ye two, your, (to) you, you
1pl	wīs	unstra	unsis	uns	we all, our, (to) us, us
2pl	jūs	ižur	ižus		you/ye all, your, (to) you, you
3pl.masc	īs	iža	im	ins	they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.neu	ī, iža			ī, iža
3pl.fem	ižas			ižas
3pl.refl	-	sīn	sis	sik	themselves

Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

The third person reflexive pronouns are inherited from Indo-European. The other pronouns form their reflexives from a compound with the third person form. The accusative and dative for most forms are merged.

	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
1sg	misīn	mišk		myself
2sg	þisīn	þišk		thyself
3sg	sīn	sis	sik	himself, herself, itself, &c
1du	unkra sīn	unkišk		ourselves
2du	inkur sīn	inkusk		yourselves
1pl	unstra sīn	unsišk		ourselves
2pl	ižur sīn	ižusk		yourselves
3pl	sīn	sis	sik	themselves

The reciprocal is formed with the particle mīsa. It does not inflect.

Indefinite Pronouns

The interrogative and negative pronouns can take the adverbial complement hun, which gives them the sense of ‘any’. Additionally, the interrogative pronouns may double as elective pronouns. For example, huat ‘what’ or ‘something’; huat hun ‘anything’.

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
inter.masc	huas	huis	huatma	huan	who, whose, to whom, whom
inter.neu	huat			huat	what, &c
inter.fem	huō	huižas	huiža	huō	who, &c
univ.masc	huažuþ	huižuþ	huatmaþ	huanaþ	everyone, everyone’s, &c
univ.neu	huāþ			huāþ	everything, everything’s, &c
univ.fem	huōþ		huižaþ	huōþ	everyone, everyone’s, &c
neg.masc	nījus	nījus	nījutma	nījun	noöne, noöne’s, &c
neg.neu	nījut			nījut	nothing, nothing’s, &c

Distributive Pronouns

The distributive pronouns are non-singular pronouns formed when the personal pronouns were fused with the distributive particles huaðru ‘each of two’ and huerižu ‘each of many’. In most forms they have now become inseparable from their root components; e.g. compare the dual genitive second person inkur and distributive huaðrižu, but the distributive pronoun inkuáðrižu. While the distributives as determiners, by definition, take a singular verb, the distributive pronouns take the non-singular verb of their respective pronouns, e.g. Aplas huerižu gatiða itnas ‘Each apple was eaten’, but Īshuerižu gatiðun itna ‘Each of them was eaten’.

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
1du	withuáðruþ	unkuáðrižuþ	unkuáðratmaþ	unkuáðranuþ	each of the two of us
2du	ǧuthuaðruþ	inkuaðrižuþ	inkuaðratmaþ	inkuaðranuþ	each of the two of you
1pl	wīshuerižuþ	unshuerižuþ	unshueritmaþ	unshuerinuþ	each of us
2pl	jūshuerižuþ	ižuhuerižuþ	ižushueritmaþ	ižushuerinuþ	each of you
3pl.masc	īshuerižuþ	ižahuerižuþ	imhueritmaþ	inshuerinuþ	each of them
3pl.neu	ižashuerituþ			ižashuerituþ	each of them
3pl.fem	ižahueriþ			ižahueriþ	each of them

Determiners

Demonstratives

	Proximal (“this”)					Medial (“that”)					Distal (“yonder”)
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	his	his	hitma	hin		sā	þis	þatma	þan		jǣns	jǣnis	jǣnatma	jǣnan
neu.sg	hit			hit		þat			þat		jǣn			jǣn
fem.sg	hī, hiža	hižis	hiža	hī, hiža		sō	þižis	þiža	þō		jǣna	jǣnižis	jǣna
masc.pl	hīs	hiža	him	hins		þǣ	þiža	þǣm	þans			jǣniža	jǣnam	jǣnans
neu.pl	hī, hiža			hī, hiža		þō			þō					jǣna
fem.pl	hižis			hižis		þōs			þōs		jǣnas			jǣnas

Articles

Valthungian has two definite articles, he and sa, both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘this’ and ‘that’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, sa is usually preferred. These are simply unstressed equivalents of the demonstratives his (proximal) and sā (medial). The distal demonstrative, jǣns, is never used as an article.

	Proximal (“this”)					Medial (“that”)
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	he*, his†	his	him	he*, hin†		sa*, s·†	þis	þam	þa*, þan†
neu.sg	he*, hit†			he*, hit†		þa*, þat†			þa*, þat†
fem.sg	hi*, hiž·†	his, hižis	hiža*, hiž·†	hi*, hiž·†		so*, s·†	þis, þižis	þiža*, þiž·†	þo*, þ·†
masc.pl	his	hiža	him	hins		þe	þiža	þǣm	þans
neu.pl	hi*, hiž·†			hi*, hiž·†		þo*, þ·†			þo*, þ·†
fem.pl	hižis			hižis		þos			þos

* Form used before a consonant. † Form used before a vowel.

There are complex rules around how and when to use the elided forms of the articles. For simplicity’s sake it is broken down into forms used before vowels or consonants, though this doesn’t always apply to all vowels or all consonants. Expect a more detailed article on liaison someday maybe.

There is no indefinite article in Valthungian.

Other Determiners

The determiners are an important word class in Valthungian because they trigger the choice of whether to use a strong or weak adjective in the noun phrase they introduce. Though most adjectives follow their nouns, determiners precede them. A non-exhaustive list follows:

als ‘all’

This determiner is inflectionally a little interesting because it has evolved an insertive /t/ in parts of the inflection due to changes to the geminates in Old Valthungian. When als is used in conjunction with another determiner, it is declined as a weak adjective and has the meaning of ‘entire’ or ‘complete’.

	als ‘all’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	als	atlis	atlatma	atlan
neu.sg	al			al
fem.sg	atla	atlažis	atla
masc.pl		atlaža	atlam	atlans
neu.pl				atla
fem.pl	atlas			atlas

ǣnagis ‘any, whichever’

	ǣnagis ‘any’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	ǣnagis	ǣnagis	ǣnaǧitma	ǣnaǧin
neu.sg	ǣnage			ǣnage
fem.sg		ǣnaǧižis	ǣnaǧa
masc.pl	ǣnaǧa	ǣnaǧiža	ǣnaǧim	ǣnaǧins
neu.pl				ǣnaǧa
fem.pl	ǣnaǧis			ǣnaǧis

bǣ ‘both’ & þrǣ ‘all three’

Note that only plural forms of these determiners exist, because it is impossible to have both or all three of a singular noun.

	bǣ ‘both’					þrǣ ‘all three’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	bǣ	beǧa	bǣm	bans		þrǣ	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrans
neu.	bā			bā		þrā			þrā
fem.	bōs			bōs		þreǧis			þreǧis

huaðruþ & hreužiþ ‘each one’

Note that only singular forms exist for each (*ahem*) of these determiners, because what is being discussed is a single noun out of, respectively, two or more than two. The unusual ‑þ ending is the result of compounding with earlier ‑uh.

	huaðruþ ‘each (of two)’					hreužiþ ‘each (of many)’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	huaðruþ	huaðrižuþ	huaðratmaþ	huaðranaþ		hreužiþ		hreužitmaþ	hreužinaþ
neu.sg				hwaðraþ					hreužiþ
fem.sg			huaðraþ					hreužiþ

huaðra & hreužis ‘which’

The dual form (huaðra) only exists in the singular, as there can only be a singular option when choosing between two nouns, but hreužis can be singular (“which one”) or plural (“which ones”).

	huaðra ‘which (of the two)’					hreužis ‘which (of many)’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	huaðra	huaðris	huaðratma	huaðran		hreužis	hreužis	hreužitma	hreužin
neu.sg				huaðra		hreužit			hreužit
fem.sg		huaðražis	huaðra			hreuža		hreuža
masc.pl	—					hreuža	hreužiža	hreužim	hreužins
neu.pl									hreuža
fem.pl						hreužis			hreužis

huǣjus ‘how much, how many’

	huǣjus ‘how much, how many’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	huǣjus	huǣjugis	huǣjugatma	huǣjugna
neu.sg	huǣjo			huǣjo
fem.sg	huǣjuga	huǣjugažis	huǣjuga
masc.pl		huǣjugaža	huǣjugam	huǣjugnas
neu.pl				huǣjuga
fem.pl	huǣjgas			huǣjgas

filus, mǣžums, mǣst, ‘much, many, more, most’

	filus ‘much, many’					mǣžums ‘more’					mǣst ‘most’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	filus	filus	filitma	filin		mǣžums	mǣžumis	mǣžumatma	mǣžumna		mǣst	mǣstis	mǣstatma	mǣstna
neu.sg	filo			filo					mǣžum					mǣst
fem.sg			filia			mǣžuma	mǣžumažis	mǣžuma			mǣsta	mǣstažis	mǣsta
masc.pl	filia	filiža	filim	filins			mǣžuma	mǣžumam	mǣžumnas			mǣstaža	mǣstam	mǣstnas
neu.pl				filia					mǣžuma					mǣsta
fem.pl	filis			filis		mǣžumas			mǣžumas		mǣstas			mǣstas

sams ‘the same’

	sams ‘the same’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sams	samis	samatma	samna
neu.sg	sam			sam
fem.sg	sama	samažis	sama
masc.pl		samažis	samam	samnas
neu.pl				sama
fem.pl	samas			samas

sums ‘some’

	sums ‘some’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sums	sumis	sumatma	sumna
neu.sg	sum			sum
fem.sg	suma	sumažis	suma
masc.pl		sumažis	sumam	sumnas
neu.pl				suma
fem.pl	sumas			sumas

suǣjus ‘so much, so many’

	suǣjus ‘how much, how many’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	suǣjus	suǣjugis	suǣjugatma	suǣjugna
neu.sg	suǣjo			suǣjo
fem.sg	suǣjuga	suǣjugažis	suǣjuga
masc.pl		suǣjugaža	suǣjugam	suǣjugnas
neu.pl				suǣjuga
fem.pl	suǣjgas			suǣjgas

fǭs, mitnums, faugist, mitnist, ‘few, little, fewer, less, fewest, least’

	fǭs ‘little, few’					mitnums ‘less, fewer’					faugist, mitnist ‘least, fewest’
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	fǭs	faugis	faugatma	faugna		mitnums	mitnumis	mitnumatma	mitnumna		faugist	faugistis	faugistatma	faugistna		mitnist	mitnistis	mitnistatma	mitnistna
neu.sg	fǭ			fǭ		mitnum			mitnum					faugista					mitnista
fem.sg	fauga	faugažis	fauga			mitnuma	mitnumažis	mitnuma			faugista	faugistažis	faugista			mitnista	mitnistažis	mitnista
masc.pl		faugaža	faugam	faugnas			mitnumaža	mitnumam	mitnuma			faugistaža	faugistam	faugistnas			mitnistaža	mistnistam	mitnistnas
neu.pl				fauga					mitnuma					faugista					mitnista
fem.pl	faugas			faugas		mitnumas			mitnumas		faugistas			faugistas		mitnistas			mitnistas

And finally all possessive adjectives can be used as determiners. (See below.)

Possessives

All possessives can be used as determiners; when used alone, it is more common to for possessive phrases to use a definite article (sa or he) followed by the noun, followed in turn by the possessive declined as a weak adjective. For example, ‘my house’ may be rendered as mīn hūs or þa hūs mīna. The Poss > Noun format is required when the noun is modified by an adjective, e.g. ‘my red house’ is nearly always mīn hūs rǭða.

The third person non-reflexive pronouns do not decline, and they may precede or follow the noun without an article, and any adjective that accompanies the noun phrase is declined as strong. (More at Adjectives.)

The possessives are:

mīns, þīns, sīns ‘my, your, his’

The singular possessives differ only by the first letter.

	mīns ‘my’					þīns ‘your’					sīns ‘his, her, its (own)’
Strong	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	mīns	mīnis	mīnatma	mīnan		þīns	þīnis	þīnatma	þīnan		sīns	þīnis	sīnatma	sīnan
neu.sg	mīn			mīn		þīn			þīn		sīn			sīn
fem.sg	mīna	mīnažis	mīna			þīna	þīnažis	þīna			sīna	sīnažis	sīna
masc.pl		mīnaža	mīnam	mīnans			þīnaža	þīnam	þīnans			sīnaža	sīnam	sīnans
neu.pl				mīna					þīna					sīna
fem.pl	mīnas			mīnas		þīnas			þīnas		sīnas			sīnas
Weak	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sa … mīna	þis … mīnins	þam … mīnin	þa … mīnan		sa … þīna	þis … þīnins	þam … þīnin	þa … þīnan		sa … sīna	þis … sīnins	þam … sīnin	þan … sīnan
neu.sg	þa … mīna			þa … mīna		þa … þīna			þa … þīna		þa … sīna			þa … sīna
fem.sg	so … mīna	þižis … mīnans	þiža … mīnan	þo … mīna		so … þīna	þižis … þīnans	þiža … þīnan	þo … þīna		so … sīna	þižis … sīnans	þiža … sīnan	þo … sīna
masc.pl	þe … mīnans	þiža … mīnaro	þem … mīnam	þans … mīnans		þe … þīnans	þiža … þīnaro	þem … þīnam	þans … þīnans		þe … sīnans	þiža … sīnaro	þem … sīnam	þans … sīnans
neu.pl	þo … mīna			þo … mīna		þo … þīna			þo … þīna		þo … sīna			þo … sīna
fem.pl	þos … mīnans			þos … mīnans		þos … þīnans			þos … þīnans		þos … sīnans			þos … sīnans

unkra, unstra ‘both of our, all of our’

	unkra ‘(both of) our’					unstra ‘(all of) our’
Strong	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	unkra	unkris	unkratma	unkran		unstra	unstris	unstratma	unstran
neu.sg				unkra					unstra
fem.sg		unkražis	unkra				unstražis	unstra
masc.pl		unkraža	unkram	unkrans			unstraža	unstram	unstrans
neu.pl				unkra					unstra
fem.pl	unkras			unkras		unstras			unstras
Weak	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sa … unkra	þis … unkrins	þam … unkrin	þa … unkran		sa … unstra	þis … unstrins	þam … unstrin	þa … unstran
neu.sg	þa … unkra			þa … unkra		þa … unstra			þa … unstra
fem.sg	so … unkra	þižis … unkrans	þiža … unkran	þo … unkran		so … unstra	þižis … unstrans	þiža … unstran	þo … unstra
masc.pl	þe … unkrans	þiža … unkraro	þem … unkram	þans … unkrans		þe … unstrans	þiža … unstraro	þem … unstram	þans … unstrans
neu.pl	þo … unkra			þo … unkra		þo … unstra			þo … unstra
fem.pl	þos … unkrans			þos … unkrans		þos … unstrans			þos … unstrans

inkur, ižur ‘both of your, all of your’

	inkur ‘(both of) your’					ižur ‘(all of) your’
Strong	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	inkur	inkuris	inkuratma	inkurna		ižur	ižuris	ižuratma	ižurna
neu.sg				inkur					ižur
fem.sg	inkura	inkuražis	inkura			ižura	ižuražis	ižura
masc.pl		inkuraža	inkuram	inkurnas			ižuraža	ižuram	ižurnas
neu.pl				inkura					ižura
fem.pl	inkuras			inkuras		ižuras			ižuras
Weak	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sa … inkura	þis … inkurins	þam … inkurin	þa … inkurna		sa … ižura	þis … ižurins	þam … ižurin	þa … ižurna
neu.sg	þa … inkura			þa … inkura		þa … ižura			þa … ižura
fem.sg	so … inkura	þižis … inkurans	þiža … inkuran	þo … inkuran		so … ižura	þižis … ižurans	þiža … ižuran	þo … ižuran
masc.pl	þe … inkurnas	þiža … inkurnaro	þem … inkurma	þans … inkurnas		þe … ižurnas	þiža … ižurnaro	þem … ižurma	þans … ižurnas
neu.pl	þo … inkuran			þo … inkuran		þo … ižuran			þo … ižuran
fem.pl	þos … inkurans			þos … inkurans		þos … ižurans			þos … ižurans

Indeclinable Possessives

The following possessives do not decline. When the noun they modify is not accompanied by an adjective, they usually follow the noun; if no adjective is present, they precede the noun, and the adjective takes the strong declension.

• is ‘his, its’
• ižis ‘her’
• iža ‘their’
• huis ‘whose’
• huižis ‘whose’
• nījus ‘no one's’
• huižuþ ‘everyone's’

Numbers

Declinable Numerals

Singular (‘one’)

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	ǣns	ǣnis	ǣnatma	ǣnan
neu.	ǣn(at)			ǣn(at)
fem.	ǣna	ǣnažas	ǣna	ǣna

Dual (‘two, both’)

	Numeral					Distributive
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	tuǣ	tuǣǧa	tuǣm	tuans		bǣ	bǣǧa	bǣm	bans
neu.	tuā			tuā		bā			bā
fem.	tuōs			tuōs		bōs			bōs

Trial (‘three, all three’)

	Numeral					Distributive
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	þrīs	þriža	þrim	þrins		þrǣ	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrans
neu.	þrī, þriža			þrī, þriža		þrā			þrā
fem.	þrīs			þrins		þreǧis			þreǧis

Undeclinable Numerals

	#	1#	2#	#0	#00	#000	#000
0	nīþun	tǣjun (tǣn)	tuǣtiǧis	-tiǧis	tēhund	þūsunde	-ljǭn
1	(ǣns)	ǣnlif	tuǣtiǧis ǣns	tǣjun	ǣn hund	ǣna þūsunde	miljǭn
2	(tuǣ)	tualif	tuǣtiǧi tuǣ	tuǣtiǧis	tuā hunda	tuōs þūsunǧis	biljǭn
3	(þrīs)	þrižatǣn	tuǣtiǧi þrīs	þrīstiǧis	þrī hunda	þrīs þūsunǧis	þriljǭn
4	fiður (fiðra)	fiðratǣn	tuǣtiǧi fiður	fiðratiǧis	fiður hunda	fiður þūsunǧis	friljǭn
5	fim	fimfatǣn	tuǣtiǧi fim	fimtiǧis	fim hunda	fim þūsunǧis	fimfiljǭn
6	sǣs	sǣstatǣn	tuǣtiǧi sǣs	sǣstiǧis	sǣs hunda	sǣs þūsunǧis	sǣsiljǭn
7	sivun (sivna)	sivnatǣn	tuǣtiǧi sivun	sivnatiǧis	sivun hunda	sivun þūsunǧis	sivniljǭn
8	āta (āt)	ātatǣn	tuǣtiǧis āta	ātatiǧis	āta hunda	āta þūsunǧis	ātatiljǭn
9	njun	njunatǣn	tuǣtiǧi njun	njuntiǧis	njun hunda	njun þūsunǧis	njuniljǭn

The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by analogy with the dual (bǣ ‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian.

The number ‘four’ is fiður, where we would normally expect **fidur through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in *fidwōr). There is also a further lenited form of fiðra, which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: fidwōr and a compound form fidur.)

The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of sivun, but also a lenited form of sivna, again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is āta, but may optionally be lenited to āt. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is tǣjun or lenited tǣn, the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers.

For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word jah (‘and’, now jā), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses i – possibly a shortened form of jā – only before the last component. For numbers ending with –tiǧis, a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to –tiǧi, e.g. þrīstiǧi fim ‘thirty-five’. Hund becomes hundi and hunda is also contracted to hund·i, þūsunde to þūsund·i, and þūsunǧis to þūsunǧi. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in -tiǧi, hundi, and þūsunǧi.) No -i- is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ǣn- and āta.

Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. þriljǭn ‘trillion’, fiðriljǭn ‘quadrillion’, fimfiljǭn ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **triljǭn, **kuaðriljǭn, and **kuintiljǭn.

Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:

N⁰	Numerals	Valthungian	Short	Hybrid	Long	Metric
10³	1,000	þūsunde	thousand			kilo
10⁶	1,000,000	miljǭn	million			Mega
10⁹	1,000,000,000	biljǭn	billion	milliard	thousand million	Giga
10¹²	1,000,000,000,000	þriljǭn	trillion	billion	billion	Tera
10¹⁵	1,000,000,000,000,000	fiðriljǭn	quadrillion	billiard	thousand billion	Peta
10¹⁸	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	fimfiljǭn	quintillion	trillion	trillion	Exa
10²¹	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	sǣsiljǭn	sextillion	trilliard	thousand trillion	Zetta
10²⁴	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	sivniljǭn	septillion	quadrillion	quadrillion	Yotta
10²⁷	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	ātatiljǭn	octillion	quadrilliard	thousand quadrillion	-
10³⁰	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	njuniljǭn	nonillion	quintillion	quintillion	-

Ordinal Numbers and Other Number Forms

Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English). In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second took only the weak declension, but all ordinals now take both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules of adjectives.

The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word þīfs ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word þīhs ‘time, occurrence’: ǣn þīhs ‘once’, tua þīhsa ‘twice’, þrija þīhsa ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: aenþijhs, tvaþijhsa, þrijþijhsa…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ǣnþis, tuaþis, þriþis…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect fim þīfs ‘five times’ to have become fimþis, instead we find the ordinal form fimftis.

Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by dǣlaro, literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing -tel to the end of numbers, e.g. drittel, viertel, zehntel, &c., -tel being a direct cognate to dǣl.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of -a to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive.

	Ordinal			Multiplicative		Fractional
	(Strong)	(Weak)
1	frumist, frums	frumista, fruma	first	ǣniþis	once, one time	--
2	anðra		second	tuaþis	twice, two times	hlafs, tuǣǧa dǣlaro	half
3	þrīǧis	þrīǧa	third	þriþis	thrice, three times	þriža dǣlaro	third
4	fiðraþs	fiðraða	fourth	fiðurþis	four times	fiðra dǣlaro	quarter/fourth
5	fimft	fimfta	fifth	fimftis	five times	fimfa dǣlaro	fifth
6	sǣst	sǣsta	sixth	sǣstis	six times	sǣsa dǣlaro	sixth
7	sivunþs	sivunþa	seventh	sivunþis	seven times	sivna dǣlaro	seventh
8	ātuþs	ātuða	eighth	ātuðis	eight times	āta dǣlaro	eighth
9	njunþs	njunþa	ninth	njunþis	nine times	njuna dǣlaro	ninth
10	tǣjunþs	tǣjunþa	tenth	tǣjunþis	ten times	tǣjun dǣlaro	tenth
11	ǣnlift	ǣnlifta	eleventh	ǣnliftis	eleven times	ǣnliva dǣlaro	eleventh
12	tuālift	tuālifta	twelfth	tuāliftis	twelve times	tuāliva dǣlaro	twelfth
13	þrižatǣnþs	þrižatǣnþa	thirteenth	þrižatǣnþis	thirteen times	þrižatǣjun dǣlaro	thirteenth
20	tuǣtiǧist	tuǣtiǧista	twentieth	tuǣtiǧistis	twenty times	tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro	twentieth
100	hundaþs	hundaða	hundredth	hundaðis	a hundred times	hunda dǣlaro	hundredth
1,000	þūsundiþs	þūsundiða	thousandth	þūsundiðis	a thousand times	þūsunǧa dǣlaro	thousandth
1,000,000	miljǭnþs	miljǭnþa	millionth	miljǭnþis	a million times	miljǭna dǣlaro	millionth

Alternative Numbers

The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages (Middle Valthungian), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primarily among these numbers was ‘13’, which was written in Gothic as ·ig·. This also occurred with the numbers ‘113’ (rig), ‘213’ (sig), ‘313’ (tig), ‘413’ (wig), and ‘513’ (fig). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)

The number ‘19’ is also sometimes called iþ by the same formulation.

Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle iþ with the number 19 gives rise to a nominal form þat njunatǣn referring to a duty or obligation. Similarly, a ‘road’ or ‘highway’ is sometimes referred to as a ‘413’ (fiður-þrižatǣn), written wig (the accusative of wiǧ (‘road’).

A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ·omg·.

A Note on Terminology: “Strong” vs. “Weak”

In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.”

In verbs, these denote two of the many categories into which verbs may be broken, “strong” verbs being those that form the preterit by means of ablaut, and “weak” being those that form the preterit with a suffix containing some manner of dental consonant. There are further classifications of preterit-present, aorist-present, subjunctive-present, and anomalous, and many of them overlap with the simplistic “strong” and “weak” descriptors. (See Verbs for more information.)

This usage is completely unrelated to strong and weak nouns and adjectives, in which “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending.

And even though the meaning of strong and weak in nouns and adjectives are historically related, their usage is not: In nouns, like the verbs, this is merely a convenient way of categorising certain types of nouns which take certain endings. In adjectives, however, the use of a strong or weak adjective depends on whether other determiners are present in the same noun phrase; most adjectives have both a strong and a weak declension.

For the purposes of this text, I dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various stem classes into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction. I maintain the use of the terms for verbs and adjectives, though, to be honest, their usage with verbs could easily be similarly eschewed; the only area where these distinctions are really functionally important is in the discussion of adjectives.

Nouns

Main article: Valthungian/Nouns

Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).

Strong masculine a-stem noun þrōs, ‘raven’
	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Sg.	þrōks	þrōkis	þrōka	þrōk∅
Pl.	þrōkas	þrōkaro	þrōkma	þrōknas

Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of ‑s or ‑a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is indicated by ‑is or ‑ins (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes ‑a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.

In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take ‑as or ‑is as an ending; neuter takes ‑a. The genitive plural takes ‑aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes ‑am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it ‑ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually ‑ans, but again may metathesise to ‑nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take ‑a.

Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.

Nouns are divided broadly into these categories:

• a‑ and ō‑stems
  • ja‑ and jō‑stems
  • ija‑ and ijō‑stems
  • wa‑ and wō‑stems
  • wja‑ stems
• i‑stems
• u‑stems
• ju‑stems
• r‑stems
• þ‑stems
• ôn‑ and ǭn‑stems
  • jôn‑ and jǭn‑stems
  • wôn‑ and wǭn‑stems
• īn‑stems

Details about the inflections of individual noun classes and their variants can be found here: Valthungian/Nouns

Verbs

Inversion

A peculiar feature about Valthungian verbs is that every finite verb has a “Standard” and “Inverted” form. This arose historically because of the increasing strictness of the V2 environment, causing shifts in voicing and sandhi between the verb and subject pronoun. Inverted pronouns are generally appended to the inverted verb (with no apostrophes!), and the plural pronouns have particularly different forms which may merge some pronouns (the third person plural forms, for example, are all identical).

Strong Verbs

Strong verbs are those verbs in Germanic which form the preterit and past participles through a process of ablaut; that is, by changing the stressed vowel. This is analogous to those verbs in English such as drive – drove – driven (class I), or drink – drank – drunk (class III). These are traditionally divided into four “Principal Parts”: The first is the base of the infinitive, present participle, present indicative and subjunctive tenses, and the imperatives. The second principal part is used to form the preterit singular. The third is the preterit plural and all of the subjunctive. (This is usually umlauted in the subjunctive.) Finally the fourth principal part is the root of the past participle.

Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)

Because of the shift of the vowel from iu to ju, when a class II verb begins with a consonant that is subject to palatalisation, some unusual patterns may emerge as a result. Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun

Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *-euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III. Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w

Strong Verbs: Class III (i – a – u – u)

Class III strong verbs are those verbs with /i/ (historically /e/) as the root vowel which is followed by a sonorant (r, l, m, n) and an obstruent (p, t, k, b, d, g, f, þ, s, h), or, rarely, two obstruents (e.g. /hs/, /gd/). Ablaut causes the second principle part to shift to /a/, and the third and fourth to /u/.

In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut).

Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)

In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut).

Preterit-Present Verbs

Finally, wilin is not actually a preterit-present verb, but a subjunctive-present verb. However, it seems to fit best here amongst its other quasi-anomalous quasi-auxiliary brethren.

Anomalous Verbs

Dōn is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic dōną actually gave rise to the /d/-reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.

The present indicative tense of gǣn/gangna has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by īǧ- from Proto-Germanic *ijj-, the same source as Old English ēode, and ultimately related to the Latin verb ire.

The present indicative tense of stǣn/standna has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. Though it acts like a Class VI verb in how it ablauts in the past, there is also a parallel form with reduplication, indicating Class VII.

Wisna is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious wis- stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, i- and sī. The imperative also has an anomalous ī as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the i- stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ī, imperative form of ire (‘to go’).

Compound Tenses

Forming the Perfect

In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ga- was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.

In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern “être/sein/essere” verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.

Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb wisna and the past participle.

• S·īst lēkare vroðna.
  • ‘She has become a doctor.’
• Is was hǣma gangna.
  • ‘He had gone home.’

Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ga- prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.

• S·ītmit gaf gā.
  • ‘She had given it to him.’
• Ik þik sǣjua gā.
  • ‘I have seen you.’

Forming the Future

The future is formed by using the auxiliary genǧin ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with go in multiple European languages).

• Ik genǧa þo hroþ lūkna.
  • ‘I will lock the door.’
• Ik ni gangiða nījo ligna þo livran af hǣða hun.
  • ‘I was never going to read that book anyway.’

Forming the Passive

Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English).

	Patient: Deliberate	Patient: Unintentional / Inanimate
Agent: Deliberate	gečin ‘to cause to get’ lenǧin ‘to cause to succeed’	gitna ‘to get’ þiǧin ‘to receive’
Agent: Unintentional / Inanimate	þiǧin ‘to receive’ lenǧin ‘to cause to succeed’	skīčin ‘to cause to happen’ skeǧin ‘to cause to happen’ verðan ‘to become’

Agent/Patient Deliberate: This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement

• Ik gatiða forða vork fraglíðiþ.
  • ‘I was paid for the work.’
• Þǣ ankýmbiðas langiðun þis broðaþjugis ganōguþ.
  • ‘The diners were served by the waiter.’

Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional: These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action.

• Ik gat þis weris slagun.
  • ‘I was hit by the man.’
• S·wagnas þagiða þiža mœuǧis fariþ.
  • ‘The car was driven by the girl.’

Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate: This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose.

• Ik þagiða þižas fœ̄ðinis nutriškiþ.
  • ‘I was nourished by the food.’
• Þū langiðas (þiž·intǣkninis) toðiža miðéndina tugun.
  • ‘You were led to that conclusion (by the evidence).’

Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate: This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’.

• Ik skīkiða þis þljuðis angǣsiþ.
  • ‘I was startled by the noise.’
• Þe lǭvas skagiðun þižas rynins avbrón.
  • ‘The leaves were carried away by the stream.’

Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future

The adverb straks can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’.

• Ik straks āt gā.
  • ‘I had just eaten.’
• Is straks gangiþ hǣma.
  • ‘He is about to go home.’

NB: Straks is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect strakis or perhaps straka.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish straks, Swedish and Icelandic strax, German stracks, &c.

Forming the Progressive

The progressive tenses are not used often in Valthungian, but they can be a useful way to indicate that something is left unfinished, since the Perfect – originally a perfective indicating completed action – has taken on more of a perfect meaning, including that of a more generalised past tense.

The progressive is formed using the auxiliary verb sitna ‘to sit’ and the preposition bī ‘by’, followed by the infinitive. (In very formal language, you may encounter sitna bi followed by the dative of the nominalized form of the verb, e.g. ‘I am drawing’ may be rendered as Ik sita bi vrǣtina rather than the expected Ik sita bi vrǣčin.

• Ū sitistu njužis bi drinkna gā?
  • ‘Have you been drinking again?’
• Ik sita bi skrīvna þo bisāt mīna. Ranive sitik bi drinkna gā.
  • ‘I’m writing my dissertation. Of course I’ve been drinking.’

Adjectives

In Valthungian, adjectives can be strong or weak (as with adjectives in any Germanic language that declines). The general rule is: If a nouns takes a determiner (article, possessive, quantifier, &c), its accompanying adjective is weak; otherwise it is strong.

Predicative adjectives do not decline; they usually take the form of the strong neuter singular regardless of what they modify.

Legend: Predicative · Strong · Weak · Determiner · Non-declining Genitive

When a noun is modified by an adjective alone (with no determiner present), the adjective takes the strong declension.

• ražna rǭðat ‘a red house’
• miðus glitnaþs ‘sparkling mead’
• vituvne frobúðna ‘forbidden knowledge’

When paired with a third person possessive (is, ižis, or iža), an adjective also takes the strong declension:

• is ražna rǭðat ‘his red house’
• ižis miðus glitnaþs ‘her sparkling mead’
• iža vituvne frobúðna ‘their forbidden knowledge’

When one of the above possessives is used without an adjective, they follow the noun.

• ražna is ‘his house’
• miðus ižis ‘her mead’
• vituvne iža ‘their knowledge’

When a determiner is present, the adjective takes a weak declension.

• hreužitaþ ražna rǭða ‘every red house’
• mīns miðus glitnaða ‘my sparkling mead’
• so vituvne frobúðna ‘the forbidden knowledge’

When a possessive is used with an adjective (as in mīns miðus glitnaða, above), the possessive precedes the noun and takes a strong declension while the adjective takes the weak; however, when no adjective is present, a definite article precedes the noun, and the weak-declined possessive follows it.

• þa ražna mīna ‘my house’
• sa miðus þīna ‘your mead’
• so vituvne unstra ‘our knowledge’

When an adjective is used as a predicate, it takes the predicative form (not really a declension, because there is only one).

• þa ražna mīna ist rǭþ. ‘my house is red’
• sa miðus þīna ist glitnaþ. ‘your mead is sparkling’
• so vituvne unstra ist frobúðna. ‘our knowledge is forbidden’

Comparison

To form the comparative, most adjectives replace the usual endings with ‑ums (which declines as an a‑stem), though after i‑ and j‑stems, it becomes ‑ims. E.g.:

• mikils ‘big’ → mikilums ‘bigger’
• grœunis ‘green’ → grœunims ‘greener’
• aglus ‘difficult’ → aglums ‘more difficult’

The dative case is used to form comparative clauses by replacing the English preposition than:

• Is ist þam brōðra sīnin hǭðum. ‘He is taller than his brother.’ (Literally: “He is to‑the brother of‑himself taller.”)

To form the superlative, most adjectives add ‑ist to the stem.

• mikils ‘big’ → mikilist ‘biggest’
• grœunis ‘green’ → grœunist ‘greenest’
• aglus ‘difficult’ → eglist ‘most difficult’

The genitive case is used to form superlative clauses. The comparative itself is usually accompanied by a definite article:

• Is ist þiža brœuðro sīnaro sa hǭðist. ‘He is the tallest of his brothers.’ (Literally: “He is of‑the brothers of‑himself the tallest.”)

Adverbialization

Historically, adverbs are formed from adjectives in a variety of ways. The most common, however, is to add the suffix ‑so (often written as ‑sua in older texts) after the stem vowel.

• mikils ‘big’ → mikilaso ‘largely’
• synikus ‘honest’ → synikuso ‘honestly’
• mǣst ‘most’ → mǣstaso ‘mostly’

Irregular and Suppletive Forms

There are a number of irregular and suppletive forms of adjectives.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative	Adverbial
gōþs ‘good’	batums ‘better’	batist ‘best’	wǣla ‘well’
līts~lītils~lītlas ‘little, small’	mitnums ‘smaller’	mitnist ‘smallest’	—
uvils ‘bad’	vresums ‘worse’	vresist ‘worst’	uvilaso ‘badly’
fǭs ‘little, few’	mitnums ‘less, fewer’	mitnist~faugist ‘least, fewest’	—
filus ‘much, many’	mǣžums ‘more’	mǣst ‘most’	mǣstaso ‘mostly’

Vocabulary

Valthungian Vocabulary

Swadesh List

For those of you who like this sort of thing!

	Valthungian	English		Valthungian	English		Valthungian	English
001	ik	I	070	fiðra (n)	feather	139	reþin	to count
002	þū	you	071	hēr (m), þlāta (f), skuft (n)	hair (on head)	140	kuiðna, rœuǧin	to say
003	is (m), sī (f), it (n)	he, she, it	072	hǭviþ (n)	head	141	singun, hežin	to sing
004	vit (du), vīs (pl)	we	073	hǭsa (n)	ear	142	lǣkna	to play
005	ǧut (du), jūs (pl)	you	074	ǭga (n)	eye	143	þljutna	to float
006	īs (m), ižas (f), iža (n)	they	075	nasa (n)	nose	144	ǧusna, þreǧin, ritnan	to flow
007	his (m), hiža (f), hī (n)	this	076	munþs (m)	mouth	145	frjusna	to freeze
008	sā (m), sō (f), þat (n)	that	077	tanþus (m)	tooth	146	ljuðna, vǣšin, bligna, suitlan	to swell
009	hēr	here	078	tunga (f)	tongue	147	sōgila (f)	sun
010	þar	there	079	nagla (n), klauga (f)	fingernail	148	mēna (m)	moon
011	huas (m), huōs (f)	who	080	fōts (f)	foot	149	strena (f)	star
012	huat (n)	what	081	anke (f)	leg	150	vatra (n)	water
013	huar (int), hueri (rel)	where	082	knio (n)	knee	151	rigna (n)	rain
014	huan (int), þeni (rel)	when	083	handus (f)	hand	152	þlōðus (m), flūma (f)	river
015	huē	how	084	þljuðre (n)	wing	153	lagus (m), mare (n), marisǣjus (m)	lake
016	ni	not	085	vamba (f), būks (m)	belly, abdomen	154	sǣjus (m)	sea
017	als	all	086	hreðra (n), instra (n), þrams (m)	guts, entrails	155	slat* (n)	salt
018	filus	many	087	hlas (m), þnāka (m)	neck	156	stǣns (m), hatlus (m)	stone
019	sums	some	088	þryǧis (m)	back	157	blama (m)	sand
020	fǭs	few	089	bōsmas (m), tīča (f)	breast	158	pulus (m), stybis (m)	dust
021	elis	other	090	hreta (n)	heart	159	reða (f), bluða (f), sœ̄lia (f)	earth, soil, dirt
022	ǣns (m), ǣna (f), ǣn (n)	one	091	ǧikur (n)	liver	160	blīma (m)	cloud
023	tuǣ (m), tuōs (f), tuā (n)	two	092	drinkna	to drink	161	nivula (f)	fog, mist
024	þrīs (m, f), þriža (n)	three	093	itna	to eat	162	himins (m)	sky
025	fiður	four	094	bītna	to bite	163	vinǧ (m)	wind
026	fim	five	095	sūgna	to suck	164	snǣjus (m)	snow
027	grǭts, lǭþs	big, large	096	spījugna	to spit	165	īs (n)	ice
028	lengis	long	097	ǧukurépna, kesčin	to vomit	166	rǭks (m)	smoke
029	brǣþs	wide, broad	098	vǣžin	to blow	167	fōr (n)	fire
030	þikus	thick	099	anan	to breathe	168	aska (f)	ash, ashes
031	korus	heavy	100	þlǣšin	to laugh	169	britnan, bretnin	burn
032	līts, lītils	small, little	101	sǣjun, vlītna	to see	170	stǣga (f), gatua (f), pleča (f), viǧ (m), 413 (n), fordore (n)	path, road, trail
033	skrots	short	102	hœ̄šin, anhœ̄šin	to hear	171	breǧ (m), fregune (n)	mountain
034	angus, þrǣns	narrow	103	vitna, kutnan	to know	172	rōþs	red
035	þutnus	thin	104	hyǧin, þenčin, mitan, munan	to think	173	grœunis	green
036	kuina (f)	woman	105	dœ̄nin (trs), stinkun (intr)	to smell	174	gilus	yellow
037	ver (m)	man	106	frœ̄čin, ōgna	to fear	175	huīts	white
038	guma (m), matna (m), ljuþs (f)	person	107	kuižin, livna	to sleep	176	strauks	black
039	bran (n), kliþ (n)	child	108	slēpna	to live	177	nāts (f)	night
040	kuēns (f)	wife	109	ǧugna, dǭðnan, sljutna, strevna	to die	178	daǧ (m)	day
041	ava (m)	husband	110	(av)dœ̄þin, afslagun, uskuímna	to kill	179	jēr (n)	year
042	mōðra (f), ǣði (f)	mother	111	ǧukna, (anþa)vīstna, fǣtna	to fight	180	vrams, hīts	hot (weather)
043	faðra (m), āta (m)	father	112	jagan, frelǣsčin, vǣþin	to hunt	181	klaþs, kōls	cold (weather)
044	ǧus (n)	animal	113	slagun, stǭtna, þningun	to hit	182	fuls	full
045	fišk (m)	fish	114	mǣtna, skǣðna, skrežin, snīðna	to cut	183	njužis	new
046	fuglas (m), fǭls (m)	bird	115	slīvna, kljuvna, splītna	to split	184	grīsis, leðis, frenis	old
047	hunǧ (m)	dog	116	þrǣšin, stynǧin	to stab, to pierce	185	gōþs, tils, sēls, fagra	good
048	lūs (f)	louse	117	krātan	to scratch	186	uvils, vams	bad
049	vroms (m), naðra (m)	snake	118	gravna, dlivna	to dig	187	fūls, vams	rotten
050	maða (m)	worm	119	suitman	to swim	188	unþrǣns, sœ̄lins, sǭliþs, fūls	dirty
051	bagmas (m)	tree	120	þljugna	to fly	189	drǣts, rǣts	straight
052	vlaðus (m), braus (m)	forest, woods	121	gangna, gǣn, traþningun	to walk	190	hlaufs, hljufs, krītus	round
053	þrunga (f), staka (m), stanga (f), stika (m), tǣns (m), valus (m), vandus (m)	stick	122	(an)kuímna	come	191	huās	sharp
054	akran (n)	fruit	123	ligna	to lie (down)	192	slējus	dull
055	frǣjo (f), sēþs (f)	seed	124	sičin, sitna	to sit	193	slǣts	smooth
056	blaþ (n), lǭfs (m)	leaf	125	standna, stǣn	to stand	194	nats	wet
057	vrōts (f)	root	126	venǧin, vrīðna, hreuvna	to turn	195	þrosus	dry
058	brakus (m)	bark (of tree)	127	drjusna, dūkna, kringna	to fall	196	garǣts, undrǣžis, vēris	correct, right
059	blōma (m)	flower	128	givna	to give	197	nēfus	near
060	hauge (n)	grass	129	hlaðna	to hold	198	vīþs	far
061	rǣp (n), viða (f)	rope	130	þrīstna, gaprángna	to squeeze	199	tǣsus	right (hand)
062	hūþs (f), fil (n)	skin	131	bingun, strjukna, strǣkan	to rub	200	þlīðums	left (hand)
063	mims (m)	flesh, meat	132	þuagun, þrǣnin	to wash	201	at, tō, (dative)	at
064	blōþ (n)	blood	133	(bi)streuvna, vrīvna	to wipe	202	in	in
065	bǣn (n)	bone	134	þinsna, dragna, čugun	to pull	203	miþ	with
066	simbréðra (n)	fat	135	þnītna, þrindna, prangna, šuvna	to push	204	jā, ǭk, -u	and
067	āde (n)	egg	136	vrepna, smītna	to throw	205	java, iva	if
068	hron (n)	horn	137	bindna	to tie, bind	206	inþis, unta, nū, þī, inþížas ī vǣtis	because
069	tagla (n)	tail	138	šužin	to sew	207	nama (n)	name