Difference between revisions of "Zjenav"
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[[Category: Artlangs]] | [[Category: Artlangs]] | ||
[[Category: A priori]] | [[Category: A priori]] | ||
[[Category: Alien languages]] | |||
[[Category: Zjenav]] | [[Category: Zjenav]] | ||
[[File:Zjenav.gif|right|alt=Zjenav]] | |||
Zjenav is a language created by [[user:jamin|BenJamin P. Johnson]] in 2020 for Luca-Fabio | Zjenav is a language created by [[user:jamin|BenJamin P. Johnson]] in 2020 for Luca-Fabio Di Franco to be used in an upcoming novel series. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
Line 15: | Line 16: | ||
! width=100px rowspan="2"| | ! width=100px rowspan="2"| | ||
! colspan="2"| '''Simple Vowels''' | ! colspan="2"| '''Simple Vowels''' | ||
| rowspan="6" width=50| | |||
! width=100px rowspan="2"| | ! width=100px rowspan="2"| | ||
! colspan="2"| '''Diphthongs''' | ! colspan="2"| '''Diphthongs''' | ||
Line 55: | Line 56: | ||
The consonants of Zjenav are notable for having robust set of unvoiced sonorants. | The consonants of Zjenav are notable for having robust set of unvoiced sonorants. | ||
<small>''( | <small>''(These labels are approximate, and are used to reflect the grouping of the consonants according to the Zjenavi writing system rather than the exact place and manner of articulation in a more expansive IPA consonant chart. When in doubt, refer to the IPA ''values'' rather than these rough rows and columns.)''</small> | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
Line 100: | Line 101: | ||
| style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"| | | style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"| | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Phonotactics=== | |||
====Onsets==== | |||
Onsets are not required (i.e. a word can start with a consonant or a vowel); however, valid word-initial onsets are: | |||
* Any single (phonemic) consonant: p, b, t, d, k, g, q, tj, dj, f, v, s, z, sj, zj, h, y, w, l, hl, r, hr, n, hn, m, hm | |||
* Stop consonants may be followed by /r/: pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, qr | |||
* Other valid word-initial clusters are: ql, kw, gw, qw, st | |||
====Medial (Intervocalic) Clusters==== | |||
Two (non-diphthong) vowels must be separated by at least one consonant. Medial clusters of consonants occurring between two vowels may consist of: | |||
* Any single (phonemic) consonant: p, b, t, d, k, g, q, tj, dj, f, v, s, z, sj, zj, h, y, w, l, hl, r, hr, n, hn, m, hm | |||
* Any stop followed by w, r, or l: pw, bw, tw, dw, kw, gw, qw, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, qr, pl, bl, tl, dl, kl, gl, ql | |||
* Some geminates: tt, kk, qq, ll, rr, mm, nn | |||
* Other valid clusters: vr, ft, st, ht, sr, sl, hp, hk, sp, sk, sq, qs, ks, ts, ps, ksj, mz, nz, mbr, ndr, ngr, mb, mp, nd, nt, ng, nk, nq, ndj, ntj, nkw, ngw, nqw, mpr, ntr, nkr, nqr, ms, ns, nks, nqs, mq, mqr, rn, rm, ml, mr, lm, ln, nr, nl, lp, lt, lk, lb, ld, lg, lv, lf, lz, ls, lsj, rp, rt, rk, rb, rd, rg, rv, rf, rz, rs, rsj | |||
====Codae==== | |||
A coda is not required. | |||
* Any single phoneme can act as a coda with the exception of y and w: p, b, t, d, k, g, q, tj, dj, f, v, s, z, sj, zj, h, l, hl, r, hr, n, hn, m, hm | |||
* Clusters which can act as a coda are: ft, st, ht, ks, qs, mp, nt, nk, nq | |||
==Zjenav Script (Abjad)== | ==Zjenav Script (Abjad)== | ||
Zjenav is most commonly written in an impure abjad (that is, an alphabet, but the vowels are written as diacritic marks above or below the consonants, depending on the positioning of any ascenders or descenders which may obstruct their positioning). There is also a “placeholder” consonant | |||
[[File:Zjenav-aleph-short.gif|left|none]] Zjenav is most commonly written in an impure abjad (that is, an alphabet, but the vowels are written as diacritic marks above or below the consonants, depending on the positioning of any ascenders or descenders which may obstruct their positioning). There is also a “placeholder” consonant for vowels which occur at the beginning of words ([[:File:Zjenav-aleph-short.gif|left]]). | |||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
The consonants are divided into types according to their place of articulation (where in the mouth each consonant is produced). These align roughly with the columns of the consonant table at the beginning of the phonology section, and consist of: labial, coronal, palatal, and dorsal (the last being a combination of the sparsely populated velar and uvular columns). There are also three types of consonant ligatures; that is, two consonants which are joined together to form a new letter when written together. | The consonants are divided into types according to their place of articulation (where in the mouth each consonant is produced). These align roughly with the columns of the consonant table at the beginning of the phonology section, and consist of: labial, coronal, palatal, and dorsal (the last being a combination of the sparsely populated velar and uvular columns). There are also three types of consonant ligatures; that is, two consonants which are joined together to form a new letter when written together. | ||
====Consonant Group I: Labial==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| p | |||
!width=100| b | |||
!width=100| f | |||
!width=100| v | |||
!width=100| m | |||
!width=100| hm | |||
!width=100| w | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-p.gif|none|alt=p]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-b.gif|none|alt=b]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-f.gif|none|alt=f]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-v.gif|none|alt=v]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-m.gif|none|alt=m]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-hm.gif|none|alt=hm]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-w.gif|none|alt=w]] | |||
|} | |||
====Consonant Group II: Coronal==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| t | |||
!width=100| d | |||
!width=100| s | |||
!width=100| z | |||
!width=100| n | |||
!width=100| hn | |||
!width=100| r | |||
!width=100| hr | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-t.gif|none|alt=t]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-d.gif|none|alt=d]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-s.gif|none|alt=s]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-z.gif|none|alt=z]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-n.gif|none|alt=n]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-hn.gif|none|alt=hn]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-r.gif|none|alt=r]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-hr.gif|none|alt=hr]] | |||
|} | |||
====Consonant Group III: Palatal==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| tj | |||
!width=100| dj | |||
!width=100| sj | |||
!width=100| zj | |||
!width=100| y | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-tj.gif|none|alt=tj]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-dj.gif|none|alt=dj]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-sj.gif|none|alt=sj]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-zj.gif|none|alt=zj]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-y.gif|none|alt=y]] | |||
|} | |||
====Consonant Group IV: Dorsal==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| k | |||
!width=100| g | |||
!width=100| l | |||
!width=100| hl | |||
!width=100| q | |||
!width=100| h | |||
!width=100| ’ | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-k.gif|none|alt=k]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-g.gif|none|alt=g]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-l.gif|none|alt=l]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-hl.gif|none|alt=hl]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-q.gif|none|alt=q]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-h.gif|none|alt=h]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph.gif|none|alt=aleph]] | |||
|} | |||
====Ligature Group I: Combinations with '''⟨r⟩'''==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| pr | |||
!width=100| br | |||
!width=100| tr | |||
!width=100| dr | |||
!width=100| kr | |||
!width=100| gr | |||
!width=100| qr | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-pr.gif|none|alt=pr]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-br.gif|none|alt=br]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-tr.gif|none|alt=tr]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-dr.gif|none|alt=dr]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-kr.gif|none|alt=kr]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-gr.gif|none|alt=gr]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-qr.gif|none|alt=qr]] | |||
|} | |||
====Ligature Group II: Combinations with '''⟨w⟩'''==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| pw | |||
!width=100| bw | |||
!width=100| tw | |||
!width=100| dw | |||
!width=100| kw | |||
!width=100| gw | |||
!width=100| qw | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-pw.gif|none|alt=pw]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-bw.gif|none|alt=bw]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-tw.gif|none|alt=tw]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-dw.gif|none|alt=dw]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-kw.gif|none|alt=kw]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-gw.gif|none|alt=gw]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-qw.gif|none|alt=qw]] | |||
|} | |||
====Ligature Group III: Other Ligatures==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!width=100| ql | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-ql.gif|none|alt=ql]] | |||
|} | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
Vowels are written as marks above or below the consonant that precedes them. In all there are five vowels and eight diphthongs, but they are all written as diacritics, for a total of thirteen possible vowels. | Vowels are written as marks above or below the consonant that precedes them. In all there are five vowels and eight diphthongs, but they are all written as diacritics, for a total of thirteen possible vowels. | ||
Four consonants – | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | ||
|- | |||
!width=100| a | |||
!width=100| ae | |||
!width=100| ai | |||
!width=100| ao | |||
!width=100| au | |||
!width=100| e | |||
!width=100| ei | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-a.gif|none|alt=a]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-ae.gif|none|alt=ae]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-ai.gif|none|alt=ai]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-ao.gif|none|alt=ao]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-au.gif|none|alt=au]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-e.gif|none|alt=e]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-ei.gif|none|alt=ei]] | |||
|- | |||
! i | |||
! iu | |||
! o | |||
! oi | |||
! u | |||
! ui | |||
! | |||
|- | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-i.gif|none|alt=i]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-iu.gif|none|alt=iu]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-o.gif|none|alt=o]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-oi.gif|none|alt=oi]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-u.gif|none|alt=u]] | |||
| [[File: Zjenav-aleph-ui.gif|none|alt=ui]] | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| | |||
|} | |||
By default, they are written above, but when a consonant has an ascender (a line which rises upward and encroaches on the space where the vowel should be placed), the vowel is placed below the consonant and flipped, so that the vowel maintains the same orientation toward its consonant “base.” (Wider consonants, like ⟨hm⟩, with sufficient room for ascenders may still have vowels above.) | |||
Four consonants – ⟨s⟩, ⟨z⟩, ⟨sj⟩, and ⟨zj⟩ – have both ascenders and descenders. Vowels are placed above these characters. In some cases, the vowel markings may be turned or modified in order to fit properly. Finally ⟨h⟩ is a solid line with no room to put a vowel either above or below, so a special variant character is used and the vowel is placed above. | |||
==Orthography (Romanization)== | ==Orthography (Romanization)== | ||
{| class="wikitable | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!width=50px| | !width=50px| | ||
!width=50px| | !width=50px| | ||
!width=50px|'''IPA''' | !width=50px| '''IPA''' | ||
!'''Description''' | !width=500px| '''Description''' | ||
!'''Example''' | !width=100px| '''Example''' | ||
!'''IPA''' | !width=50px| '''IPA''' | ||
|- | |||
|style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph.gif|none|alt=aleph]] | |||
|style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ’ | |||
| - | |||
| Used as a placeholder for vowels in initial position and in certain other environments. Not transcribed in Romanization. | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-a.gif|none|alt=a]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-a.gif|none|alt=a]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| a | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| a | ||
| /ɑ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɑ/ | ||
| as in ''father''. | | as in '''''father'''''. | ||
| ''[[aqeh#Zjenav|aqeh]]'' ‘child’ | | '''''[[aqeh#Zjenav|aqeh]]''''' ‘child’ | ||
| [ɑˈqɛh] | | [ɑˈqɛh] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ae.gif|none|alt=ae]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ae.gif|none|alt=ae]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| ae | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ae | ||
| /ɑɛ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɑɛ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨a⟩ in '''''father''''' followed by ⟨e⟩ in '''''egg'''''. (In some dialects, ⟨ae⟩ is pronounced in the same manner as ⟨ai⟩, below.) | ||
| ''[[aegazjil#Zjenav|aegazjil]]'' ‘start’ | | '''''[[aegazjil#Zjenav|aegazjil]]''''' ‘start’ | ||
| [ˈɑɛ̯ɡɑʒil] | | [ˈɑɛ̯ɡɑʒil] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ai.gif|none|alt=ai]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ai.gif|none|alt=ai]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| ai | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ai | ||
| /ɑɪ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɑɪ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨i⟩ in '''''find'''''. | ||
| ''[[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]]'' ‘who’ | | '''''[[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]]''''' ‘who’ | ||
| [ʒɑɪ̯] | | [ʒɑɪ̯] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ao.gif|none|alt=ao]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ao.gif|none|alt=ao]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| ao | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ao | ||
| /ɑɔ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɑɔ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨a⟩ in '''''father''''' followed by ⟨aw⟩ in '''''awful'''''. (In some dialects, ⟨ao⟩ is pronounced in the same manner as ⟨au⟩, below.) | ||
| ''[[nuqaor#Zjenav|nuqaor]]'' ‘seventh’ | | '''''[[nuqaor#Zjenav|nuqaor]]''''' ‘seventh’ | ||
| [nuˈqɑɔ̯r] | | [nuˈqɑɔ̯r] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-au.gif|none|alt=au]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-au.gif|none|alt=au]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| au | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| au | ||
| /ɑʊ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɑʊ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨ou⟩ in '''''house'''''. | ||
| ''[[qau#Zjenav|qau]]'' ‘me’ | | '''''[[qau#Zjenav|qau]]''''' ‘me’ | ||
| [qɑʊ̯] | | [qɑʊ̯] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-b.gif|none|alt=b]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-b.gif|none|alt=b]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| b | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| b | ||
| /b/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /b/ | ||
| as in ''boy''. | | as in '''''boy'''''. | ||
| ''[[bare#Zjenav|bare]]'' ‘to go’ | | '''''[[bare#Zjenav|bare]]''''' ‘to go’ | ||
| [ˈbɑrɛ] | | [ˈbɑrɛ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-br.gif|none|alt=br]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-br.gif|none|alt=br]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| br | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| br | ||
| /br/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /br/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨br⟩ in '''''bring'''''. | ||
| ''[[brezj#Zjenav|brezj]]'' ‘voice’ | | '''''[[brezj#Zjenav|brezj]]''''' ‘voice’ | ||
| [brɛʒ] | | [brɛʒ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-bw.gif|none|alt=bw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-bw.gif|none|alt=bw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| bw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| bw | ||
| /bw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /bw/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨bu⟩ in Spanish '''''bueno'''''. | ||
| ''[[rabwa#Zjenav|rabwa]]'' ‘pool’ | | '''''[[rabwa#Zjenav|rabwa]]''''' ‘pool’ | ||
| [ˈrɑ.bwɑ] | | [ˈrɑ.bwɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-d.gif|none|alt=d]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-d.gif|none|alt=d]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| d | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| d | ||
| /d/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /d/ | ||
| as in ''dog''. | | as in '''''dog'''''. | ||
| ''[[dulam#Zjenav|dulam]]'' ‘warm’ | | '''''[[dulam#Zjenav|dulam]]''''' ‘warm’ | ||
| [duˈlɑm] | | [duˈlɑm] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-dj.gif|none|alt=dj]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-dj.gif|none|alt=dj]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| dj | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| dj | ||
| /ʤ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ʤ/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨j⟩ in '''''joke'''''. | ||
| ''[[djalisj#Zjenav|djalisj]]'' ‘green’ | | '''''[[djalisj#Zjenav|djalisj]]''''' ‘green’ | ||
| [ʤɑˈliʃ] | | [ʤɑˈliʃ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-dr.gif|none|alt=dr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-dr.gif|none|alt=dr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| dr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| dr | ||
| /dr/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /dr/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨dr⟩ in '''''dragon'''''. | ||
| ''[[drimasj#Zjenav|drimasj]]'' ‘honey’ | | '''''[[drimasj#Zjenav|drimasj]]''''' ‘honey’ | ||
| [driˈmɑʃ] | | [driˈmɑʃ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-dw.gif|none|alt=dw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-dw.gif|none|alt=dw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| dw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| dw | ||
| /dw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /dw/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨dw⟩ in '''''dwell'''''. | ||
| ''[[laedwohn#Zjenav|laedwohn]]'' ‘twilight’ | | '''''[[laedwohn#Zjenav|laedwohn]]''''' ‘twilight’ | ||
| [lɑɛ̯ˈdwon̥] | | [lɑɛ̯ˈdwon̥] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-e.gif|none|alt=e]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-e.gif|none|alt=e]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| e | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| e | ||
| /ɛ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɛ/ | ||
| as in ''excel''. | | as in '''''excel'''''. | ||
| ''[[eqeh#Zjenav|eqeh]]'' ‘again’ | | '''''[[eqeh#Zjenav|eqeh]]''''' ‘again’ | ||
| [ɛˈqɛh] | | [ɛˈqɛh] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ei.gif|none|alt=ei]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ei.gif|none|alt=ei]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| ei | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ei | ||
| /eɪ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /eɪ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨a⟩ in '''''face'''''. | ||
| ''[[eisj#Zjenav|eisj]]'' ‘under’ | | '''''[[eisj#Zjenav|eisj]]''''' ‘under’ | ||
| [ | | [eɪ̯ʃ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-f.gif|none|alt=f]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-f.gif|none|alt=f]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| f | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| f | ||
| /f/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /f/ | ||
| as in ''five''. | | as in '''''five'''''. | ||
| ''[[fenav#Zjenav|fenav]]'' ‘flower’ | | '''''[[fenav#Zjenav|fenav]]''''' ‘flower’ | ||
| [fɛˈnɑv] | | [fɛˈnɑv] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-g.gif|none|alt=g]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-g.gif|none|alt=g]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| g | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| g | ||
| /ɡ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɡ/ | ||
| as in ''get'' (never as in ''gel''). | | as in '''''get''''' (never as in '''''gel'''''). | ||
| ''[[garasa#Zjenav|garasa]]'' ‘brother’ | | '''''[[garasa#Zjenav|garasa]]''''' ‘brother’ | ||
| [ɡɑˈrɑsɑ] | | [ɡɑˈrɑsɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-gr.gif|none|alt=gr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-gr.gif|none|alt=gr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| gr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| gr | ||
| /ɡr/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɡr/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨gr⟩ in '''''grand'''''. | ||
| ''[[grisjar#Zjenav|grisjar]]'' ‘mountain’ | | '''''[[grisjar#Zjenav|grisjar]]''''' ‘mountain’ | ||
| [ɡriˈʃɑr] | | [ɡriˈʃɑr] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-gw.gif|none|alt=gw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-gw.gif|none|alt=gw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| gw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| gw | ||
| /ɡw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɡw/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨gu⟩ in '''''guava'''''. | ||
| ''[[gwammah#Zjenav|gwammah]]'' ‘wide’ | | '''''[[gwammah#Zjenav|gwammah]]''''' ‘wide’ | ||
| [ˈɡwɑmːɑh] | | [ˈɡwɑmːɑh] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-h.gif|none|alt=h]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-h.gif|none|alt=h]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| h | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| h | ||
| /h/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /h/ | ||
| as in hand. | | as in '''''hand'''''. | ||
| ''[[hasjan#Zjenav|hasjan]]'' ‘sun’ | | '''''[[hasjan#Zjenav|hasjan]]''''' ‘sun’ | ||
| [hɑˈʃɑn] | | [hɑˈʃɑn] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-hl.gif|none|alt=hl]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-hl.gif|none|alt=hl]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| hl | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| hl | ||
| /l̥/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /l̥/ | ||
| as in Icelandic hlaða. | | as in Icelandic '''''hlaða'''''. | ||
| ''[[hleti#Zjenav|hleti]]'' ‘to yell’ | | '''''[[hleti#Zjenav|hleti]]''''' ‘to yell’ | ||
| [ˈl̥ɛti] | | [ˈl̥ɛti] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-hm.gif|none|alt=hm]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-hm.gif|none|alt=hm]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| hm | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| hm | ||
| /m̥/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /m̥/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨mh⟩ in Welsh '''''fy mhen'''''. | ||
| ''[[zjohma#Zjenav|zjohma]]'' ‘to turn’ | | '''''[[zjohma#Zjenav|zjohma]]''''' ‘to turn’ | ||
| [ˈʒom̥ɑ] | | [ˈʒom̥ɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-hn.gif|none|alt=hn]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-hn.gif|none|alt=hn]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| hn | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| hn | ||
| /n̥/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /n̥/ | ||
| as in Icelandic ''hnjóta''. | | as in Icelandic '''''hnjóta'''''. | ||
| ''[[hnivel#Zjenav|hnivel]]'' ‘odd’ | | '''''[[hnivel#Zjenav|hnivel]]''''' ‘odd’ | ||
| [n̥iˈvɛl] | | [n̥iˈvɛl] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-hr.gif|none|alt=hr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-hr.gif|none|alt=hr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| hr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| hr | ||
| /r̥/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /r̥/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨rh⟩ in Welsh '''''Rhian'''''. | ||
| ''[[hrasev#Zjenav|hrasev]]'' ‘short’ | | '''''[[hrasev#Zjenav|hrasev]]''''' ‘short’ | ||
| [r̥ɑˈsɛv] | | [r̥ɑˈsɛv] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-i.gif|none|alt=i]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-i.gif|none|alt=i]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| i | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| i | ||
| /i/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /i/ | ||
| as in ''machine'', or like | | as in '''''machine''''', or like ⟨ee⟩ in '''''seen'''''. | ||
| ''[[ihoihih#Zjenav|ihoihih]]'' ‘moth’ | | '''''[[ihoihih#Zjenav|ihoihih]]''''' ‘moth’ | ||
| [iˈhoɪ̯hih] | | [iˈhoɪ̯hih] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-iu.gif|none|alt=iu]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-iu.gif|none|alt=iu]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| iu | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| iu | ||
| /iʊ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /iʊ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨ew⟩ in '''''few'''''. | ||
| ''[[liutok#Zjenav|liutok]]'' ‘nocturnal’ | | '''''[[liutok#Zjenav|liutok]]''''' ‘nocturnal’ | ||
| [ˈliʊ̯.tok] | | [ˈliʊ̯.tok] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| - | | - | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| j | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| j | ||
| - | | - | ||
| only used in Romanization the combinations | | only used in Romanization the combinations ⟨dj⟩, ⟨sj⟩, ⟨tj⟩, and ⟨zj⟩. | ||
| - | | - | ||
| - | | - | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-k.gif|none|alt=k]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-k.gif|none|alt=k]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| k | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| k | ||
| /k/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /k/ | ||
| as in keep. | | as in '''''keep'''''. | ||
| ''[[kazjur#Zjenav|kazjur]]'' ‘always’ | | '''''[[kazjur#Zjenav|kazjur]]''''' ‘always’ | ||
| [kɑˈʒur] | | [kɑˈʒur] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-kr.gif|none|alt=kr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-kr.gif|none|alt=kr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| kr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| kr | ||
| /kr/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /kr/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨cr⟩ in '''''cringe'''''. | ||
| ''[[kruig#Zjenav|kruig]]'' ‘wood’ | | '''''[[kruig#Zjenav|kruig]]''''' ‘wood’ | ||
| [ˈkruɪ̯ɡ] | | [ˈkruɪ̯ɡ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-kw.gif|none|alt=kw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-kw.gif|none|alt=kw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| kw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| kw | ||
| /kw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /kw/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨qu⟩ in '''''quick'''''. | ||
| ''[[kwahro#Zjenav|kwahro]]'' ‘wall’ | | '''''[[kwahro#Zjenav|kwahro]]''''' ‘wall’ | ||
| [ˈkwa.r̥o] | | [ˈkwa.r̥o] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-l.gif|none|alt=l]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-l.gif|none|alt=l]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| l | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| l | ||
| /l/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /l/ | ||
| as in like. | | as in '''''like'''''. | ||
| ''[[lazj#Zjenav|lazj]]'' ‘name’ | | '''''[[lazj#Zjenav|lazj]]''''' ‘name’ | ||
| [lɑʒ] | | [lɑʒ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-m.gif|none|alt=m]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-m.gif|none|alt=m]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| m | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| m | ||
| /m/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /m/ | ||
| as in man. | | as in '''''man'''''. | ||
| ''[[maqa#Zjenav|maqa]]'' ‘to hit’ | | '''''[[maqa#Zjenav|maqa]]''''' ‘to hit’ | ||
| [ˈmɑqɑ] | | [ˈmɑqɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-n.gif|none|alt=n]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-n.gif|none|alt=n]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| n | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| n | ||
| /n/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /n/ | ||
| as in now. | | as in '''''now'''''. | ||
| ''[[nuqa#Zjenav|nuqa]]'' ‘seven’ | | '''''[[nuqa#Zjenav|nuqa]]''''' ‘seven’ | ||
| [ˈnuqɑ] | | [ˈnuqɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-o.gif|none|alt=o]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-o.gif|none|alt=o]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| o | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| o | ||
| /o/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /o/ | ||
| like in go. | | like in '''''go'''''. | ||
| ''[[onahlu#Zjenav|onahlu]]'' ‘to fly’ | | '''''[[onahlu#Zjenav|onahlu]]''''' ‘to fly’ | ||
| [oˈnɑl̥u] | | [oˈnɑl̥u] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-oi.gif|none|alt=oi]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-oi.gif|none|alt=oi]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| oi | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| oi | ||
| /ɔi̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ɔi̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨oi⟩ in '''''oil'''''. | ||
| ''[[qoiqoi#Zjenav|qoiqoi]]'' ‘friend’ | | '''''[[qoiqoi#Zjenav|qoiqoi]]''''' ‘friend’ | ||
| [qoɪ̯ˈqoɪ̯] | | [qoɪ̯ˈqoɪ̯] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-p.gif|none|alt=p]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-p.gif|none|alt=p]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| p | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| p | ||
| /p/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /p/ | ||
| as in pen. | | as in '''''pen'''''. | ||
| ''[[peisja#Zjenav|peisja]]'' ‘to buy’ | | '''''[[peisja#Zjenav|peisja]]''''' ‘to buy’ | ||
| [ˈpɛɪ̯ʃɑ] | | [ˈpɛɪ̯ʃɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-pr.gif|none|alt=pr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-pr.gif|none|alt=pr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| pr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| pr | ||
| /pr/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /pr/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨pr⟩ in '''''prize'''''. | ||
| ''[[prehna#Zjenav|prehna]]'' ‘to pull’ | | '''''[[prehna#Zjenav|prehna]]''''' ‘to pull’ | ||
| [ˈprɛ.n̥ɑ] | | [ˈprɛ.n̥ɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-pw.gif|none|alt=pw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-pw.gif|none|alt=pw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| pw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| pw | ||
| /pw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /pw/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨po⟩ in French '''''poisson'''''. | ||
| ''[[tapweh#Zjenav|tapweh]]'' ‘week’ | | '''''[[tapweh#Zjenav|tapweh]]''''' ‘week’ | ||
| [tɑpˈwɛh] | | [tɑpˈwɛh] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-q.gif|none|alt=q]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-q.gif|none|alt=q]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| q | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| q | ||
| /q/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /q/ | ||
| as in Hebrew qoph. (Like | | as in Hebrew '''''qoph'''''. (Like ⟨k⟩, but more guttural.) | ||
| ''[[qaevov#Zjenav|qaevov]]'' ‘energy’ | | '''''[[qaevov#Zjenav|qaevov]]''''' ‘energy’ | ||
| [ˈqɑɛ̯.vov] | | [ˈqɑɛ̯.vov] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-ql.gif|none|alt=ql]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-ql.gif|none|alt=ql]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| ql | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ql | ||
| /ql/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ql/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨cl⟩ in '''''clash''''', but more guttural. | ||
| ''[[qludji#Zjenav|qludji]]'' ‘to write’ | | '''''[[qludji#Zjenav|qludji]]''''' ‘to write’ | ||
| [ˈqlu.ʤi] | | [ˈqlu.ʤi] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-qr.gif|none|alt=qr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-qr.gif|none|alt=qr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| qr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| qr | ||
| /qr/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /qr/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨cr⟩ in '''''crash''''', but more guttural. | ||
| ''[[qraqei#Zjenav|qraqei]]'' ‘for no reason’ | | '''''[[qraqei#Zjenav|qraqei]]''''' ‘for no reason’ | ||
| [qrɑˈqɛɪ̯] | | [qrɑˈqɛɪ̯] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-qw.gif|none|alt=qw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-qw.gif|none|alt=qw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| qw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| qw | ||
| /qw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /qw/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨qu⟩ in '''''quite''''', but more guttural. | ||
| ''[[qwekeru#Zjenav|qwekeru]]'' ‘twenty’ | | '''''[[qwekeru#Zjenav|qwekeru]]''''' ‘twenty’ | ||
| [qwɛˈkɛ.ru] | | [qwɛˈkɛ.ru] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-r.gif|none|alt=r]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-r.gif|none|alt=r]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| r | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| r | ||
| /r/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /r/ | ||
| tapped or trilled as in Italian or Spanish caro. | | tapped or trilled as in Italian or Spanish '''''caro'''''. | ||
| ''[[ravaoq#Zjenav|ravaoq]]'' ‘wet’ | | '''''[[ravaoq#Zjenav|ravaoq]]''''' ‘wet’ | ||
| [rɑˈvɑɔ̯q] | | [rɑˈvɑɔ̯q] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-s.gif|none|alt=s]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-s.gif|none|alt=s]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| s | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| s | ||
| /s/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /s/ | ||
| as in song (never as in days). | | as in '''''song''''' (never as in '''''days'''''). | ||
| ''[[suzje#Zjenav|suzje]]'' ‘wind’ | | '''''[[suzje#Zjenav|suzje]]''''' ‘wind’ | ||
| [ˈsuʒɛ] | | [ˈsuʒɛ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-sj.gif|none|alt=sj]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-sj.gif|none|alt=sj]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| sj | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| sj | ||
| /ʃ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ʃ/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨sh⟩ in '''''show'''''. | ||
| ''[[sjikah#Zjenav|sjikah]]'' ‘sand’ | | '''''[[sjikah#Zjenav|sjikah]]''''' ‘sand’ | ||
| [ʃiˈkɑh] | | [ʃiˈkɑh] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-t.gif|none|alt=t]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-t.gif|none|alt=t]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| t | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| t | ||
| /t/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /t/ | ||
| as in take. | | as in '''''take'''''. | ||
| ''[[taklo#Zjenav|taklo]]'' ‘cup’ | | '''''[[taklo#Zjenav|taklo]]''''' ‘cup’ | ||
| [ˈtɑklo] | | [ˈtɑklo] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-tj.gif|none|alt=tj]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-tj.gif|none|alt=tj]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| tj | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| tj | ||
| /ʧ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ʧ/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨ch⟩ in '''''chair'''''. | ||
| ''[[tjari#Zjenav|tjari]]'' ‘hundred’ | | '''''[[tjari#Zjenav|tjari]]''''' ‘hundred’ | ||
| [ˈʧɑri] | | [ˈʧɑri] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-tr.gif|none|alt=tr]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-tr.gif|none|alt=tr]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| tr | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| tr | ||
| /tr/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /tr/ | ||
| | | like in '''''tree'''''. | ||
| ''[[traqo#Zjenav|traqo]]'' ‘near’ | | '''''[[traqo#Zjenav|traqo]]''''' ‘near’ | ||
| [ˈtr̥ɑ.qo] | | [ˈtr̥ɑ.qo] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-tw.gif|none|alt=tw]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-tw.gif|none|alt=tw]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| tw | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| tw | ||
| /tw/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /tw/ | ||
| as in twist. | | as in '''''twist'''''. | ||
| ''[[vetwe#Zjenav|vetwe]]'' ‘to kiss’ | | '''''[[vetwe#Zjenav|vetwe]]''''' ‘to kiss’ | ||
| [ˈvɛ.twɛ] | | [ˈvɛ.twɛ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-u.gif|none|alt=u]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-u.gif|none|alt=u]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| u | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| u | ||
| /u/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /u/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨oo⟩ in '''''soon'''''. | ||
| ''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]'' ‘fire’ | | '''''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]''''' ‘fire’ | ||
| [ˈuɡmɛ] | | [ˈuɡmɛ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ui.gif|none|alt=ui]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-aleph-ui.gif|none|alt=ui]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| ui | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| ui | ||
| /uɪ̯/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /uɪ̯/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨uoy⟩ in '''''buoy'''''. | ||
| ''[[kruiguil#Zjenav|kruiguil]]'' ‘wooden’ | | '''''[[kruiguil#Zjenav|kruiguil]]''''' ‘wooden’ | ||
| [ˈkruɪ̯.ɡuɪ̯l] | | [ˈkruɪ̯.ɡuɪ̯l] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-v.gif|none|alt=v]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-v.gif|none|alt=v]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| v | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| v | ||
| /v/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /v/ | ||
| as in ''very''. | | as in '''''very'''''. | ||
| ''[[vesj#Zjenav|vesj]]'' ‘thus’ | | '''''[[vesj#Zjenav|vesj]]''''' ‘thus’ | ||
| [vɛʃ] | | [vɛʃ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-w.gif|none|alt=w]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-w.gif|none|alt=w]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| w | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| w | ||
| /w/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /w/ | ||
| as in ''want''. | | as in '''''want'''''. | ||
| ''[[rabwa#Zjenav|rabwa]]'' ‘pool’ | | '''''[[rabwa#Zjenav|rabwa]]''''' ‘pool’ | ||
| [ˈrɑbwɑ] | | [ˈrɑbwɑ] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-y.gif|none|alt=y]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-y.gif|none|alt=y]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| y | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| y | ||
| /j/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /j/ | ||
| as in ''yell''. | | as in '''''yell'''''. | ||
| ''[[zjuyazi#Zjenav|zjuyazi]]'' ‘goat’ | | '''''[[zjuyazi#Zjenav|zjuyazi]]''''' ‘goat’ | ||
| [ʒuˈjɑzi] | | [ʒuˈjɑzi] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-z.gif|none|alt=z]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-z.gif|none|alt=z]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| z | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| z | ||
| /z/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /z/ | ||
| as in ''zoo''. | | as in '''''zoo'''''. | ||
| ''[[zaqei#Zjenav|zaqei]]'' ‘why’ | | '''''[[zaqei#Zjenav|zaqei]]''''' ‘why’ | ||
| [zɑˈqɛɪ̯] | | [zɑˈqɛɪ̯] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[File:Zjenav-zj.gif|none|alt=zj]] | |style="text-align: center"| [[File:Zjenav-zj.gif|none|alt=zj]] | ||
|style="font-size:large;"| zj | |style="font-size:large; text-align: center;"| zj | ||
| /ʒ/ | |style="text-align: center;"| /ʒ/ | ||
| like | | like ⟨s⟩ in '''''vision''''', or like ⟨j⟩ in French '''''jamais'''''. | ||
| ''[[zjaran#Zjenav|zjaran]]'' ‘road’ | | '''''[[zjaran#Zjenav|zjaran]]''''' ‘road’ | ||
| [ʒɑˈrɑn] | | [ʒɑˈrɑn] | ||
|} | |} | ||
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===Noun Phrases=== | ===Noun Phrases=== | ||
Prepositions and determiners precede the noun in noun phrases. Adjectives, numerals, genitive constructions, and relative clauses all follow the noun, in that specific order (preposition—(determiner)—NOUN—adjective (phrase)—numeral—relative clause). Genitive, dative, benefactive, and instrumental phrases may appear anywhere in the clause, though they tend to follow the main noun except in marked speech. | |||
For example, the phrase “with those three thin men from Zakalasrava who stole my book” would be assembled in the order: | For example, the phrase “with those three thin men from Zakalasrava who stole my book” would be assembled in the order: | ||
''…[[dum#Zjenav|dum]] [[zjesrah#Zjenav|zjesrahom]] [[dehla#Zjenav|dehla]] [[djat#Zjenav|djat]] [[Zakalasrava#Zjenav|Zakalasravan]] [[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]] [[kotresji#Zjenav| | ''…[[dum#Zjenav|dum]] [[zjesrah#Zjenav|zjesrahom]] [[dehla#Zjenav|dehla]] [[djat#Zjenav|djat]] [[Zakalasrava#Zjenav|Zakalasravan]] [[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]] [[kotresji#Zjenav|kotresju]] [[la#Zjenav|la]] [[butjat#Zjenav|butjat]] [[qane#Zjenav|qane]].'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
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===Ordinals and Compounds=== | ===Ordinals and Compounds=== | ||
Compounds are created by simply stacking up the numbers from largest to smallest, with the last number separated by the conjunction ''[[si#Zjenav|si]]'' (‘and’). E.g. ‘47’ = ''[[zjekeru#Zjenav|zjekeru]]'' ‘40’ + ''[[si#Zjenav|si]]'' ‘and’ + ''[[nuqa#Zjenav|nuqa]]'' ‘7’ → ''zjekeru si nuqa''. ‘625’ = ''[[alase#Zjenav|alase]] [[tjari#Zjenav|tjari]]'' ‘600’ | Compounds are created by simply stacking up the numbers from largest to smallest, with the last number separated by the conjunction '''''[[si#Zjenav|si]]''''' (‘and’). E.g. ‘47’ = ''[[zjekeru#Zjenav|zjekeru]]'' ‘40’ + ''[[si#Zjenav|si]]'' ‘and’ + ''[[nuqa#Zjenav|nuqa]]'' ‘7’ → ''zjekeru si nuqa''. ‘625’ = ''[[alase#Zjenav|alase]] [[tjari#Zjenav|tjari]]'' ‘600’ + ''[[qwekeru#Zjenav|qwekeru]]'' ‘20’ + ''[[si#Zjenav|si]]'' ‘and’ + ''[[uvuh#Zjenav|uvuh]]'' ‘5’ → ''alase tjari qwekeru si uvuh''. | ||
Most ordinal numbers are formed by adding the suffix ''[[-aor#Zjenav|-aor]]'' to the number, e.g. ''[[djataor#Zjenav|djataor]]'' ‘third’, ''[[uvuhaor#Zjenav|uvuhaor]]'' ‘fifth’. Where a numeral ends in a vowel, the vowel is usually deleted, as in ''[[alasaor#Zjenav|alasaor]]'' ‘sixth’ from ''[[alase#Zjenav|alase]]'', | Most ordinal numbers are formed by adding the suffix '''''[[-aor#Zjenav|-aor]]''''' to the number, e.g. ''[[djataor#Zjenav|djataor]]'' ‘third’, ''[[uvuhaor#Zjenav|uvuhaor]]'' ‘fifth’. Where a numeral ends in a vowel, the vowel is usually deleted, as in ''[[alasaor#Zjenav|alasaor]]'' ‘sixth’ from ''[[alase#Zjenav|alase]]''; however, when a numeral ends in '''–u''', the '''–ao–''' of the suffix is deleted instead, as in ''[[zjequr#Zjenav|zjequr]]'' from ''[[zjequ#Zjenav|zjequ]]''. When '''–r–''' occurs in the last syllable of a number, the '''–r''' of the suffix changes to '''–l''', as in ''[[kehru#Zjenav|kehru]]'' + ''[[-aor#Zjenav|-aor]]'' → ''[[kehrul#Zjenav|kehrul]]'' and ''[[tjari#Zjenav|tjari]]'' + ''[[-aor#Zjenav|-aor]]'' → ''[[tjaraol#Zjenav|tjaraol]]''. The ordinals for ‘one’ and ‘two’ are as irregular as “first” and “second” – they mean ‘closest to the front’ and ‘the following’, respectively. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
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Note: Determiners do not inflect for case when used as adjectives; however, when they are used on their own (i.e. without an accompanying noun) they are considered pronouns and do inflect. | Note: Determiners do not inflect for case when used as adjectives; however, when they are used on their own (i.e. without an accompanying noun) they are considered pronouns and do inflect. | ||
See [[#Adjectives|Adjectives]] for more information about inflection. | See '''[[#Adjectives|Adjectives]]''' for more information about inflection. | ||
===Demonstratives (‘this’, ‘that’ )=== | ===Demonstratives (‘this’, ‘that’ )=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!Proximal<br />''‘this’, ‘these’'' | !Proximal<br />''‘this’, ‘these’'' | ||
|[[vai#Zjenav|vai]] | | '''[[vai#Zjenav|vai]]''' | ||
|[[ | | '''[[vai#Zjenav|vae]]''' | ||
|[[vai#Zjenav|vai]] | | '''[[vai#Zjenav|vai]]''' | ||
|[[voq#Zjenav|voq]] | | '''[[voq#Zjenav|voq]]''' | ||
|[[ | | '''[[voq#Zjenav|voqu]]''' | ||
|[[ | | '''[[voq#Zjenav|voqat]]''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Distal<br />''‘that’, ‘those’'' | !Distal<br />''‘that’, ‘those’'' | ||
|[[tai#Zjenav|tai]] | | '''[[tai#Zjenav|tai]]''' | ||
|[[ | | '''[[tai#Zjenav|tae]]''' | ||
|[[tai#Zjenav|tai]] | | '''[[tai#Zjenav|tai]]''' | ||
|[[toq#Zjenav|toq]] | | '''[[toq#Zjenav|toq]]''' | ||
|[[ | | '''[[toq#Zjenav|toqu]]''' | ||
|[[ | | '''[[toq#Zjenav|toqat]]''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Relative and Interrogative Particles=== | ===Relative and Interrogative Particles=== | ||
Zjenav makes a distinction which does not exist in English between interrogative and relative determiners, correlatives, and pronouns. In English, words like ''who'', ''when'', ''where'', ''why'', and ''how'' (but not ''what'') are used as interrogatives to form a question — such as “''When'' did he arrive?” or “''Who'' are you?” — as well as relatives to form subordinate clauses, such as “That’s ''when'' he arrived,” or “That’s the person ''who'' arrived.” In Zjenav, interrogatives all begin with | Zjenav makes a distinction which does not exist in English between interrogative and relative determiners, correlatives, and pronouns. In English, words like ''who'', ''when'', ''where'', ''why'', and ''how'' (but not ''what'') are used as interrogatives to form a question — such as “'''''When''''' did he arrive?” or “'''''Who''''' are you?” — as well as relatives to form subordinate clauses, such as “That’s '''''when''''' he arrived,” or “That’s the person '''''who''''' arrived.” In Zjenav, interrogatives all begin with ⟨z⟩ while their relative counterparts begin with ⟨zj⟩: | ||
:Interrogative: ''[[rah#Zjenav|Rah]] [[djaikae#Zjenav|djaikaet]] [[la#Zjenav|la]] '''[[zem#Zjenav|zem]]'''?'' ‘'''''When''''' did he arrive?’ | :Interrogative: ''[[rah#Zjenav|Rah]] [[djaikae#Zjenav|djaikaet]] [[la#Zjenav|la]] '''[[zem#Zjenav|zem]]'''?'' ‘'''''When''''' did he arrive?’ | ||
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:Relative: ''[[tai#Zjenav|Tai]] [[zji#Zjenav|zji]] [[zjeser#Zjenav|zjeser]] '''[[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]]''' [[djaikae#Zjenav|djaikaet]].'' ‘That’s the person '''''who''''' arrived.’ | :Relative: ''[[tai#Zjenav|Tai]] [[zji#Zjenav|zji]] [[zjeser#Zjenav|zjeser]] '''[[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]]''' [[djaikae#Zjenav|djaikaet]].'' ‘That’s the person '''''who''''' arrived.’ | ||
Also note that interrogatives are predicative, so they normally follow the verb. E.g. instead of saying “''who'' are you?” you would say, “you are ''who''?” (''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[zji#Zjenav|zji]] '''[[zai#Zjenav|zai]]'''?'') | Also note that interrogatives are predicative, so they normally follow the verb. E.g. instead of saying “''who'' are you?” you would say, “you are '''''who'''''?” (''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[zji#Zjenav|zji]] '''[[zai#Zjenav|zai]]'''?'') | ||
These “correlative” roots can be used in combination with other determiners to form additional adverbs and pronouns: | These “correlative” roots can be used in combination with other determiners to form additional adverbs and pronouns: | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!width=100px| | !width=100px| | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Person | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Thing | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Time | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Place | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Manner | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Amount | ||
!width= | !width=75px|Reason | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Interrogative | ! Interrogative | ||
|[[zai#Zjenav|zai]] | | '''[[zai#Zjenav|zai]]'''<br />‘who’ | ||
|[[zoq#Zjenav|zoq]] | | '''[[zoq#Zjenav|zoq]]'''<br />‘what’ | ||
|[[zem#Zjenav|zem]] | | '''[[zem#Zjenav|zem]]'''<br />‘when’ | ||
|[[zul#Zjenav|zul]] | | '''[[zul#Zjenav|zul]]'''<br />‘where’ | ||
|[[zesj#Zjenav|zesj]] | | '''[[zesj#Zjenav|zesj]]'''<br />‘how’ | ||
|[[zazoh#Zjenav|zazoh]] | | '''[[zazoh#Zjenav|zazoh]]'''<br />‘how much’ | ||
|[[zaqei#Zjenav|zaqei]] | | '''[[zaqei#Zjenav|zaqei]]'''<br />‘why’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Relative | ! Relative | ||
|[[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]] | | '''[[zjai#Zjenav|zjai]]'''<br />‘who’ | ||
|[[zjoq#Zjenav|zjoq]] | | '''[[zjoq#Zjenav|zjoq]]'''<br />‘that’ | ||
|[[zjem#Zjenav|zjem]] | | '''[[zjem#Zjenav|zjem]]'''<br />‘when’ | ||
|[[zjul#Zjenav|zjul]] | | '''[[zjul#Zjenav|zjul]]'''<br />‘where’ | ||
|[[zjesj#Zjenav|zjesj]] | | '''[[zjesj#Zjenav|zjesj]]'''<br />‘how’ | ||
|[[zjazoh#Zjenav|zjazoh]] | | '''[[zjazoh#Zjenav|zjazoh]]'''<br />‘how much’ | ||
|[[zjaqei#Zjenav|zjaqei]] | | '''[[zjaqei#Zjenav|zjaqei]]'''<br />‘why’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Proximal | ! Proximal | ||
|[[vai#Zjenav|vai]] | | '''[[vai#Zjenav|vai]]'''<br />‘this one’ | ||
|[[voq#Zjenav|voq]] | | '''[[voq#Zjenav|voq]]'''<br />‘this’ | ||
|[[vem#Zjenav|vem]] | | '''[[vem#Zjenav|vem]]'''<br />‘now’ | ||
|[[vul#Zjenav|vul]] | | '''[[vul#Zjenav|vul]]'''<br />‘here’ | ||
|[[vesj#Zjenav|vesj]] | | '''[[vesj#Zjenav|vesj]]'''<br />‘like this’ | ||
|[[vazoh#Zjenav|vazoh]] | | '''[[vazoh#Zjenav|vazoh]]'''<br />‘this much’ | ||
|[[vaqei#Zjenav|vaqei]] | | '''[[vaqei#Zjenav|vaqei]]'''<br />‘because’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Distal | ! Distal | ||
|[[tai#Zjenav|tai]] | | '''[[tai#Zjenav|tai]]'''<br />‘that one’ | ||
|[[toq#Zjenav|toq]] | | '''[[toq#Zjenav|toq]]'''<br />‘that’ | ||
|[[tem#Zjenav|tem]] | | '''[[tem#Zjenav|tem]]'''<br />‘then’ | ||
|[[tul#Zjenav|tul]] | | '''[[tul#Zjenav|tul]]'''<br />‘there’ | ||
|[[tesj#Zjenav|tesj]] | | '''[[tesj#Zjenav|tesj]]'''<br />‘thus’ | ||
|[[tazoh#Zjenav|tazoh]] | | '''[[tazoh#Zjenav|tazoh]]'''<br />‘that much’ | ||
|[[taqei#Zjenav|taqei]] | | '''[[taqei#Zjenav|taqei]]'''<br />‘therefore’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Negative | ! Negative | ||
|[[qrai#Zjenav|qrai]] | | '''[[qrai#Zjenav|qrai]]'''<br />‘no one’ | ||
|[[qroq#Zjenav|qroq]] | | '''[[qroq#Zjenav|qroq]]'''<br />‘nothing’ | ||
|[[qrem#Zjenav|qrem]] | | '''[[qrem#Zjenav|qrem]]'''<br />‘never’ | ||
|[[qrul#Zjenav|qrul]] | | '''[[qrul#Zjenav|qrul]]'''<br />‘nowhere’ | ||
|[[qresj#Zjenav|qresj]] | | '''[[qresj#Zjenav|qresj]]'''<br />‘no way’ | ||
|[[qrazoh#Zjenav|qrazoh]] | | '''[[qrazoh#Zjenav|qrazoh]]'''<br />‘none’ | ||
|[[qraqei#Zjenav|qraqei]] | | '''[[qraqei#Zjenav|qraqei]]'''<br />‘no reason’ | ||
|} | |} | ||
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====Noun Classes==== | ====Noun Classes==== | ||
Though I refer to them throughout this text as “noun classes,” that is an insufficient descriptor, as these classes also have implications for pronouns and verbs. There are three overlapping types of noun classes in Zjenav: Animacy, Sanctity, and Sex. | |||
=====Animacy===== | =====Animacy===== | ||
Zjenav’s primary noun (and pronoun) class system is one of animacy. This is simply the dividing of nouns into categories of animate and inanimate. This division is fairly intuitive: If it is alive, it is animate; otherwise, it is inanimate. There are, however, some exceptions and nuances. Many nouns we might think of as inanimate may be considered animate to the Rahavahi, particularly those which have certain spiritual significance or independent movement. Some examples of nouns which may be unexpectedly animate in Zjenav are: ''[[ugme]]'' ‘fire’, ''[[suzje]]'' ‘wind’, ''[[emposjer]]'' ‘alcohol’, ''[[zjoran]]'' ‘the sea, ''[[rehazj]]'' ‘the moon’, ''[[laedwohn]]'' ‘twilight’, ''[[nivul]]'' ‘river’, ''[[hasjan]]'' ‘the sun’, ''[[isjil]]'' ‘star’, and ''[[dimma]]'' ‘smoke’. | |||
Conversely, some nouns which we might think of as alive are considered inanimate in Zjenav if they are a specific part of a larger animate system; for example: body parts (''[[ellavu]]'' ‘arm’, ''[[zuhluzj]]'' ‘head’, ''[[zaqsun]]'' ‘finger’) or parts of plants (''[[nazu]]'' ‘fruit’, ''[[djendra]]'' ‘leaf’, ''[[asrolu]]'' ‘stem’, ''[[ravu]]'' ‘root’, &c.) | |||
Other normally inanimate nouns may be used in an animate sense for emphasis in poetic language or rhetoric, such as ''[[djindre]]'' ‘melody’ if it is particularly lively or moving, or ''[[zivesj]]'' ‘light’ to describe certain intense shades or colours. | |||
There is a small subset of nouns which can be either animate or inanimate depending on their use. Herbs, spices, and harvested plants are animate while growing or in “plant form,” but inanimate when dried, prepared, harvested, or otherwise being used as food. | |||
Third person pronouns (both singular and plural) have a firm distinction between animate and inanimate, and the third person singular even maintains a separate conjugation pattern in verbs. (The third person plural conjugation is the same for both animate and inanimate.) | |||
=====Sanctity===== | =====Sanctity===== | ||
Zjenav has a secondary class system which is only marked on certain words which have taboo or reverent qualities to the Rahavahi. As a class, sanctity may be applied to either animate or inanimate nouns. There is no pronominal or verbal reflection of sanctity in standard speech. (Verbs may only be made “sacred” or “cursed” in some highly stylized or religious language, such as prayers or spells.) | |||
Sanctity is shown by altering the consonants in a word to all be voiced, in the case of sacred objects, or unvoiced, in the case of cursed ones. This likely began as part of a practice of whispering the names of taboo objects. Indeed, many cursed words may still be whispered (their vowels also devoiced). | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
! Cursed | |||
! Original | |||
! Sacred | |||
|- | |||
| ''p'' | |||
| ← p → | |||
| '''b''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''t'' | |||
| ← t → | |||
| '''d''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''tj'' | |||
| ← tj → | |||
| '''dj''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''k'' | |||
| ← k → | |||
| '''g''' | |||
|- | |||
| '''p''' | |||
| ← b → | |||
| ''b'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''t''' | |||
| ← d → | |||
| ''d'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''tj''' | |||
| ← dj → | |||
| ''dj'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''k''' | |||
| ← g → | |||
| ''g'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''f''' | |||
| ← f → | |||
| ''v'' | |||
|- | |||
| ''f'' | |||
| ← v → | |||
| '''v''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''s'' | |||
| ← s → | |||
| '''z''' | |||
|- | |||
| '''s''' | |||
| ← z → | |||
| ''z'' | |||
|- | |||
| ''sj'' | |||
| ← sj → | |||
| '''zj''' | |||
|- | |||
| '''sj''' | |||
| ← zj→ | |||
| ''zj'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''hl''' | |||
| ← l → | |||
| ''l'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''hr''' | |||
| ← r → | |||
| ''r'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''hm''' | |||
| ← m → | |||
| ''m'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''hn''' | |||
| ← n → | |||
| ''n'' | |||
|- | |||
| ''hl'' | |||
| ← hl → | |||
| '''l''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''hr'' | |||
| ← hr → | |||
| '''r''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''hm'' | |||
| ← hm → | |||
| '''m''' | |||
|- | |||
| ''hn'' | |||
| ← hn → | |||
| '''n''' | |||
|} | |||
In other words, in sacred nouns, the letters '''p''', '''t''', '''tj''', '''k''', '''f''', '''s''', '''sj''', '''hl''', '''hr''', '''hm''', and '''hn''' become, respectively, '''b''', '''d''', '''dj''', '''g''', '''z''', '''zj''', '''l''', '''r''', '''m''', and '''n'''. Conversely, in cursed nouns, '''b''', '''d''', '''dj''', '''g''', '''z''', '''zj''', '''l''', '''r''', '''m''', and '''n''' become '''p''', '''t''', '''tj''', '''k''', '''f''', '''s''', '''sj''', '''hl''', '''hr''', '''hm''', and '''hn'''. Having no voicing equivalents, the consonants '''q''', '''h''', '''y''', and '''w''' are unaffected. | |||
In the event that a voicing change leads to an illegal cluster (e.g. unvoiced sonorants cannot form clusters), '''e''' is added to break up the cluster, e.g. ''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]'' ‘fire’ → ''u'''khm'''e → ''uk'''e'''hme'' ‘cursed fire’. | |||
Obviously, many nouns – especially shorter words – may contain exclusively voiced or unvoiced consonants. In this case, affixes serve to add sanctity distinction to a noun. | |||
The prefix ''[[bara-#Zjenav|bara-]]'' makes a noun with no unvoiced consonants sacred. When affixed before a vowel, the final a is elided: ''[[bar-#Zjenav|bar-]]''. When using ''[[bara-#Zjenav|bara-]]'' with a noun that is explicitly marked as feminine with a prefix, the suffix ''[[-bara#Zjenav|-bara]]'' should be used instead. | |||
The suffix ''[[-eqla#Zjenav|-eqla]]'' makes a noun cursed which is devoid of voiced consonants. When affixed after a vowel, the initial e is elided: ''[[-qla#Zjenav|-qla]]''. When using ''[[-eqla#Zjenav|-eqla]]'' with a noun that is explicitly marked as masculine by another suffix, the prefix ''[[qla-#Zjenav|qla-]]'' should be used instead. | |||
E.g. ''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]'' ‘fire’ → ''[[barugme#Zjenav|barugme]]'' ‘sacred fire’; ''[[aqeh#Zjenav|aqeh]]'' ‘child’ → ''[[baraqeh#Zjenav|baraqeh]]'' ‘holy child’, → ''[[aqeheqla#Zjenav|aqeheqla]]'' ‘cursed child’. | |||
While it is tempting to combine affixes with voicing to hyperbolize a noun’s sanctity, this should be avoided. '''''To do so is, itself, a cursed practice.''''' | |||
=====Sex===== | =====Sex===== | ||
Finally Zjenav has a third system of dividing substantives up into groups according to biological sex. (I hesitate to use the word “gender” here, because that has complicated connotations biologically, culturally, and linguistically, and those nuances are not helpful in this context.) In pronouns, this exists exclusively as a male/female division of the third person singular (i.e. '''''[[rah#Zjenav|rah]]''''' ‘he’ vs. '''''[[rei#Zjenav|rei]]''''' ‘she’). In nouns, sex is only indicated in animate nouns, and only on those terms where a neutral base term requires elaboration. Nouns marked explicitly as masculine take a suffix, while feminine nouns take the same marking as a prefix. E.g. ''[[aqeh#Zjenav|aqeh]]'' ‘child’ → ''[[aqehu#Zjenav|aqehu]]'' ‘boy’, ''[[uhaqeh#Zjenav|uhaqeh]]'' ‘girl’; ''[[zjeser#Zjenav|zjeser]]'' ‘person’ → ''[[zjesrah#Zjenav|zjesrah]]'' ‘man’, ''[[azjeser#Zjenav|azjeser]]'' ‘woman’. The vowel of the suffix may change in some words, but the masculine and feminine vowels always match. Most commonly they are: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
! Feminine | |||
! | |||
! Masculine | |||
|- | |||
| '''''ha-''''' (''ah-'' before a vowel) | |||
| ↔ | |||
| '''''-ah''''' (''-ha'' after a vowel) | |||
|- | |||
| '''''hu-''''' (''uh-'' before a vowel) | |||
| ↔ | |||
| '''''-uh''''' (''-hu'' after a vowel) | |||
|- | |||
| '''''he-''''' (''eh-'' before a vowel) | |||
| ↔ | |||
| '''''-eh''''' (''-he'' after a vowel) | |||
|} | |||
====(Grammatical) Number==== | ====(Grammatical) Number==== | ||
Nouns may be singular, plural, or in some cases dual. The dual number is somewhat rarer than the singular or plural, and may have a different connotation than just “two” of the singular. For example, ''[[paksa#Zjenav|paksa]]'' ‘eye’, ''[[paksa#Zjenav|paksu]]'' ‘pair of eyes’ (but not just any two eyes; the eyes of a single person or creature; eyes that belong together); ''[[maht#Zjenav|maht]]'' ‘door’, but ''[[maht#Zjenav|mahtu]]'' doesn’t just mean ‘two doors’; it refers to a double-door or double-hung gate like a French door or saloon gate. To refer to two unrelated eyes, doors, or other nouns, use the plural. For example, there is a great difference between saying ''[[bare#Zjenav|Baresh]] [[ra#Zjenav|ra]] [[maht#Zjenav|maht]] [[qwe#Zjenav|qwe]]'' ‘Go through two doors’ and ''[[bare#Zjenav|Baresj]] [[ra#Zjenav|ra]] [[maht#Zjenav|mahtu]]'' ‘Go through the double-doors’. | |||
When a whole number is used to modify a noun, the noun remains in the default/singular form unless a case is explicitly called out. (E.g. ''[[maht#Zjenav|maht]] [[kehru#Zjenav|kehru]]'' ‘eight gate(s)’, but ''[[maht#Zjenav|mahtasj]] [[kehru#Zjenav|kehru]]'' ‘from/of eight gates’) | |||
====Cases==== | ====Cases==== | ||
Line 930: | Line 1,283: | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''qa'' | | '''''qa''''' | ||
| ''zji'' | | ''zji'' | ||
| ''zjeser'' | | '''''zjeser''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg.nom</span> | | '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg.nom</span>''' | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cop</span> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cop</span> | ||
| person<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">.nom</span> | | '''person<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">.nom</span>''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| I | | '''I''' | ||
| am | | am | ||
| human | | '''human''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 953: | Line 1,306: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| -∅ | | '''-∅''' | ||
| -uq | | '''-uq''' | ||
| -i | | '''-i''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| -∅ | | '''-∅''' | ||
| -u | | '''-u''' | ||
| -(j)at | | '''-(j)at''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 981: | Line 1,334: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''Nizjan''-∅ | | ''Nizjan''-∅ | ||
| '' | | '''''garasa-ane''''' | ||
| '' | | '''''qa-ane''''' | ||
| ''guqo-et la'' | | ''guqo-et la'' | ||
| ''zaka''-∅ | | ''zaka''-∅ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| wife<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-nom</span> | | wife<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-nom</span> | ||
| brother<span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | '''brother<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-gen'''</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg | | '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg-gen'''</span> | ||
| take<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.anim pst</span> | | take<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.anim pst</span> | ||
| stone<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-acc</span> | | stone<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-acc</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Wife | | Wife | ||
| '''of-''' | | '''of-brother''' | ||
| '''of-''' | | '''of-me''' | ||
| took | | took | ||
| stone | | stone | ||
|} | |} | ||
‘My brother’s wife took the stone.’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Line 1,009: | Line 1,362: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| -ane | | '''-ane''' | ||
| -aze | | '''-aze''' | ||
| -ezj | | '''-ezj''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| -an | | '''-an''' | ||
| -uz | | '''-uz''' | ||
| -asj | | '''-asj''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,032: | Line 1,385: | ||
The accusative is the direct object of a clause: It is whatever noun (or pronoun) is being affected by the verb. | The accusative is the direct object of a clause: It is whatever noun (or pronoun) is being affected by the verb. | ||
''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[ | ''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[nokwa#Zjenav|nokwae]] [[qulug#Zjenav|qulug]].'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | ||
Line 1,038: | Line 1,391: | ||
| ''asj'' | | ''asj'' | ||
| ''nokwa-e'' | | ''nokwa-e'' | ||
| '' | | '''''qulug''-∅''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg.nom</span> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg.nom</span> | ||
| hold<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-2sg</span> | | hold<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-2sg</span> | ||
| rope<span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | '''rope<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-acc'''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| you | | you | ||
Line 1,059: | Line 1,412: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| -u | | '''-u''' | ||
| -um | | '''-um''' | ||
| -im | | '''-im''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| -∅ | | '''-∅''' | ||
| -u | | '''-u''' | ||
| -(j)isj | | '''-(j)isj''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,085: | Line 1,438: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''basri-sj'' | | ''basri-sj'' | ||
| '' | | '''''qa-ote''''' | ||
| ''butjat-''∅ | | ''butjat-''∅ | ||
| ''huzji'' | | ''huzji'' | ||
| ''ek-''∅ | | ''ek-''∅ | ||
| ''ur'' | | ''ur'' | ||
| '' | | '''''djasko-ote''''' | ||
| ''qa-ane'' | | ''qa-ane'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| give<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-imp</span> | | give<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-imp</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg | | '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg-dat'''</span> | ||
| book<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-acc</span> | | book<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-acc</span> | ||
| put<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">.imp</span> | | put<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">.imp</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">4sg.inan-acc</span> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">4sg.inan-acc</span> | ||
| into | | into | ||
| hand<span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | '''hand<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-dat'''</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg-gen</span> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg-gen</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,122: | Line 1,475: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| -ote | | '''-ote''' | ||
| -oyal | | '''-oyal''' | ||
| -om | | '''-om''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| -at | | '''-at''' | ||
| -ut | | '''-ut''' | ||
| -om | | '''-om''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Some examples: | Some examples: | ||
* ''[[mahkis#Zjenav| | * ''[[mahkis#Zjenav|mahkis]]'' ‘fish’ (animate): ''mahkisote'', ''mahkisoyal'', ''mahkisom'' | ||
* ''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]'' ‘fire’ (animate): ''ugmote'', ''ugmoyal'', ''ugmom'' | * ''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]'' ‘fire’ (animate): ''ugmote'', ''ugmoyal'', ''ugmom'' | ||
* ''[[lezasj#Zjenav|lezasj]]'' ‘cloud’ (inanimate): ''lezasjat'', ''lezasjut'', ''lezasjom'' | * ''[[lezasj#Zjenav|lezasj]]'' ‘cloud’ (inanimate): ''lezasjat'', ''lezasjut'', ''lezasjom'' | ||
Line 1,141: | Line 1,494: | ||
=====“For”-phrases (“Benefactive”)===== | =====“For”-phrases (“Benefactive”)===== | ||
The benefactive case has two main uses when translating from English: Phrases with the preposition “for,” as in “this is a present ''for you''” and “for the purpose of” or “in order to.” In the latter case, English normally uses a verb (e.g. “in order to read the book,” but in Zjenav a benefactive verbal noun is used instead (“reading-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">ben</span> the book.”) In some cases the benefactive may be translated as “because of” or “thanks to.” | |||
''[[ | ''[[qa#Zjenav|Qa]] [[ra#Zjenav|ra]] [[viluvi#Zjenav|viluvi]] [[rahya#Zjenav|rahya]].'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''qa'' | ||
| '' | | ''ra'' | ||
| ''viluvi-i'' | |||
| '''''rah-ya''''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg.nom</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">fut</span> | ||
| speak<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-1sg</span> | |||
| '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.masc-ben</span>''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | I | ||
| | | will | ||
| speak | |||
| '''for-him''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
‘I will speak on his behalf.’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Line 1,167: | Line 1,526: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| - | | '''-iya''' | ||
| - | | '''-al''' | ||
| - | | '''-iyasj''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| - | | '''-iya''' / '''-ja''' | ||
| - | | '''-uya''' | ||
| - | | '''-iyasj''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Some examples: | Some examples: | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[kweru#Zjenav|kweru]]'' ‘tree’ (animate): ''kweriya'', ''kweral'', ''kweriyasj'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[mahkov#Zjenav|mahkov]]'' ‘mother’ (animate): ''mahkoviya'', ''mahkoval'', ''mahkoviyasj'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[grisjar#Zjenav|grisjar]]'' ‘mountain’ (inanimate): ''grisjariya'', ''grisjaruya'', ''grisjariyasj'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[kwemqe#Zjenav|kwemqe]]'' ‘stick’ (inanimate): ''kwemqiya'', ''kwemquya'', ''kwemqiyasj'' | ||
=====“With/by”-phrases (“Instrumental”)===== | =====“With/by”-phrases (“Instrumental”)===== | ||
The instrumental case translates the preposition “with” in English, but not all senses of it! The most common sense of “with” is equivalent to “accompanying” or “together,” which is rendered with the preposition ''[[dum#Zjenav|dum]]'' and a noun or pronoun in the dative. The instrumental translates “with” in a sense of “using” or “by means/way of,” (e.g. “with a hammer” or “by way of the park”). The instrumental is often used to derive adverbs and adjectives from nouns, such as ''[[sjulpurat#Zjenav|sjulpurat]]'' ‘with two horns’ → ‘horned’ from ''[[sjulpe#Zjenav|sjulpe]]'' ‘horn’. | |||
''[[ | ''[[qai#Zjenav|Qai]] [[qludji#Zjenav|qludjiqa]] [[la#Zjenav|la]] [[butjat#Zjenav|butjatisj]] [[djasko#Zjenav|djaskor]].'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''qai'' | ||
| '' | | ''qludji-qa'' | ||
| ''la'' | |||
| ''butjat-isj'' | |||
| '''''djasko-or''''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1pl.nom</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | write<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-1pl</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pst</span> | |||
| book<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-acc.pl</span> | |||
| '''hand<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-ist</span>''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | We | ||
| | | write | ||
| did | |||
| books | |||
| '''by-hand''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
‘We wrote the books by hand.’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Line 1,212: | Line 1,580: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| - | | '''-or''' | ||
| - | | '''-or''' | ||
| - | | '''-arat''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| - | | '''-ara''' | ||
| - | | '''-urat''' | ||
| - | | '''-oyarat''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Some examples: | Some examples: | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[bizju#Zjenav|bizju]]'' ‘tutelary deity’ (animate): ''bizjor'', ''bizjor'', ''bizjarat'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[fenav#Zjenav|fenav]]'' ‘flower’ (animate): ''fenavor'', ''fenavor'', ''fenavarat'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[esjit#Zjenav|esjit]]'' ‘bone’ (inanimate): ''esjitara'', ''esjiturat'', ''esjitoyarat'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[muhla#Zjenav|muhla]]'' ‘leg’ (inanimate): ''muhlara'', ''muhlurat'', ''muhloyarat'' | ||
=====Direct Address (“Vocative”)===== | =====Direct Address (“Vocative”)===== | ||
Finally the Vocative case is simply the case you would use to refer to someone by name. Only the second person pronouns (''[[asj#Zjenav|asj]]'' and ''[[asji#Zjenav|asji]]'') have a vocative inflection. | |||
''[[ | ''[[asj#Zjenav|’Sja]] [[aqehu#Zjenav|aqeha]] [[Zehru#Zjenav|Zehra]] [[lazj#Zjenav|la’]] [[asjane#Zjenav|shane]] [[zji#Zjenav|zji]] [[zjoq#Zjenav|zjoq]] [[resj#Zjenav|resj]] [[djaya#Zjenav|djayesj]] [[vul#Zjenav|vul]].'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''(a)sj-a'' | ||
| '' | | ''aqehu-a'' | ||
| ''Zehru-a'' | |||
| ''lazj asj-ane'' | |||
| ''zji'' | |||
| ''zjoq '' | |||
| ''djaya-e-sj'' | |||
| ''v-ul'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg-voc</span> | ||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;"> | | boy<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-voc</span> | ||
| Zehru<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-voc</span> | |||
| name <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg-gen</span> | |||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cop</span> | |||
| what<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">.rel</span> ever | |||
| come<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">-2sg-imp</span> | |||
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">prox-loc</span> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | You | ||
| | | boy | ||
| Zehru | |||
| name of-you | |||
| is | |||
| what-ever | |||
| come | |||
| here | |||
|} | |} | ||
‘You, boy, Zehru, whatever your name is, come here.’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Line 1,256: | Line 1,642: | ||
!width=75| Plural | !width=75| Plural | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate<ref>The vocative only exists officially for animate nouns, since most people are not in the habit of directly addressing inanimate objects. (In some cases where poetic license is necessary, the animate endings may be applied to an inanimate.)</ref> | ||
| - | | '''-a''' | ||
| - | | '''-uq''' | ||
| - | | '''-in''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Pronoun | ||
| | | '''asja''' | ||
| | | '''asjuqwe''' | ||
| | | '''asjin''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Some examples: | Some examples: | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[Azahn#Zjenav|Azahn]]'' ‘Azahn’ (name): ''Azahna'', ''Azahnuq'', ''Azahnin'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[Rahavah#Zjenav|Rahavah]]'' ‘Rahavah’ (animate): ''Rahavaha'', ''Rahavahuq'', ''Rahavahin'' | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[rehazj#Zjenav|rehazj]]'' ‘moon’ (animate): ''rehazja'', ''rehazjuq'', ''rehazjin'' | ||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
Pronouns are declined for case and number. The third (and fourth) person is also declined for animacy and sex. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
!width=100| Nom. | |||
!width=100| Gen. | |||
!width=100| Dat. | |||
!width=100| Ben. | |||
!width=100| Ist. | |||
!width=100| Acc. | |||
!width=100| Voc. | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[qa#Zjenav|qa]]'''<br />''I'' | |||
| '''[[qane#Zjenav|qane]]'''<br />''of me, my'' | |||
| '''[[qote#Zjenav|qote]]'''<br />''to me'' | |||
| '''[[qaya#Zjenav|qaya]]'''<br />''for me'' | |||
| '''[[qaor#Zjenav|qaor]]'''<br />''through me'' | |||
| '''[[qau#Zjenav|qau]]'''<br />''me'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[asj#Zjenav|asj]]'''<br />''you'' | |||
| '''[[asjane#Zjenav|(a)sjane]]'''<br />''of you, your'' | |||
| '''[[asjote#Zjenav|(a)sjote]]'''<br />''to you'' | |||
| '''[[asjaya#Zjenav|(a)sjaya]]'''<br />''for you'' | |||
| '''[[asjor#Zjenav|(a)sjor]]'''<br />''through you'' | |||
| '''[[asju#Zjenav|(a)sju]]'''<br />''you'' | |||
| '''[[asja#Zjenav|(a)sja]]'''<br />''hey, you!'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.masc</span>'' | |||
| '''[[rah#Zjenav|rah]]'''<br />''he'' | |||
| '''[[rahne#Zjenav|rahne]]'''<br />''of him, his'' | |||
| '''[[rahote#Zjenav|rahote]]'''<br />''to him'' | |||
| '''[[rahya#Zjenav|rahya]]'''<br />''for him'' | |||
| '''[[rahor#Zjenav|rahor]]'''<br />''through him'' | |||
| '''[[rahu#Zjenav|rahu]]'''<br />''him'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.fem</span>'' | |||
| '''[[rei#Zjenav|rei]]'''<br />''she'' | |||
| '''[[reyane#Zjenav|reyane]]'''<br />''of her, her(s)'' | |||
| '''[[reyote#Zjenav|reyote]]'''<br />''to her'' | |||
| '''[[reya#Zjenav|reya]]'''<br />''for her'' | |||
| '''[[reyor#Zjenav|reyor]]'''<br />''through her'' | |||
| '''[[reyu#Zjenav|reyu]]'''<br />''her'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">4sg<ref>The term ''fourth person'' can mean many different things, linguistically speaking, depending on the language in question, and is usually avoided because of any confusion that may arise therefrom. In this text I present it as a simple alternative to describing the inanimate pronouns; persons 1‒3 are ''actual'' “persons,” while the fourth person here is not. It is equally valid to describe the “third person inanimate” in contrast to the “third person animate,” but that frankly just takes up a lot room in an otherwise concise chart.</ref></span>'' | |||
| '''[[ek#Zjenav|ek]]'''<br />''it'' | |||
| '''[[ekan#Zjenav|(e)kan]]'''<br />''of it, its'' | |||
| '''[[ekat#Zjenav|(e)kat]]'''<br />''to it'' | |||
| '''[[ekaya#Zjenav|(e)kaya]]'''<br />''for it'' | |||
| '''[[ekra#Zjenav|ekra]]'''<br />''through it'' | |||
| '''[[ek#Zjenav|ek]]'''<br />''it'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1du</span>'' | |||
| '''[[qae#Zjenav|qae]]'''<br />''you & I'' | |||
| '''[[qaeze#Zjenav|qaeze]]'''<br />''of you & me'' | |||
| '''[[qayom#Zjenav|qayom]]'''<br />''to you & me'' | |||
| '''[[qael#Zjenav|qael]]'''<br />''for you & me'' | |||
| '''[[qayor#Zjenav|qayor]]'''<br />''via you & me'' | |||
| '''[[qayum#Zjenav|qayum]]'''<br />''you & me'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1pl</span>'' | |||
| '''[[qai#Zjenav|qai]]'''<br />''we (all)'' | |||
| '''[[qaizj#Zjenav|qaizj]]'''<br />''of us'' | |||
| '''[[qayom#Zjenav|qayom]]'''<br />''to us'' | |||
| '''[[qayasj#Zjenav|qayasj]]'''<br />''for us'' | |||
| '''[[qayarat#Zjenav|qayarat]]'''<br />''through us'' | |||
| '''[[qayim#Zjenav|qayim]]'''<br />''us'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[asji#Zjenav|(a)sji]]'''<br />''you (all)'' | |||
| '''[[asjizj#Zjenav|(a)sjizh]]'''<br />''of you, your'' | |||
| '''[[asjom#Zjenav|(a)sjom]]'''<br />''to you'' | |||
| '''[[asjisj#Zjenav|(a)sjisj]]'''<br />''for you'' | |||
| '''[[asjarat#Zjenav|(a)sjarat]]'''<br />''through you'' | |||
| '''[[asjim#Zjenav|(a)sjim]]'''<br />''you'' | |||
| '''[[asjin#Zjenav|(a)sjin]]'''<br />''hey, you!'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3pl</span>'' | |||
| '''[[rai#Zjenav|rai]]'''<br />''they (anim.)'' | |||
| '''[[raizj#Zjenav|raizj]]'''<br />''of them, their'' | |||
| '''[[rayom#Zjenav|rayom]]'''<br />''to them'' | |||
| '''[[rayasj#Zjenav|rayasj]]'''<br />''for them'' | |||
| '''[[rayarat#Zjenav|rayarat]]'''<br />''through them'' | |||
| '''[[rayim#Zjenav|rayim]]'''<br />''them'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">4pl</span>'' | |||
| '''[[kat#Zjenav|kat]]'''<br />''they (inan.)'' | |||
| '''[[kayasj#Zjenav|kayasj]]'''<br />''of those, their'' | |||
| '''[[kayom#Zjenav|kayom]]'''<br />''to those'' | |||
| '''[[kayasj#Zjenav|kayasj]]'''<br />''for those'' | |||
| '''[[kairat#Zjenav|kairat]]'''<br />''through those'' | |||
| '''[[kaisj#Zjenav|kaisj]]'''<br />''them'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|} | |||
The initial '''''a-''''' of the second person singular and plural is optional in all forms except for the nominative singular. The third person singular (animate) pronouns are divided into masculine and feminine forms; they are merged in the plural (not unlike English ‘he’ vs. ‘she’, but the plural of both is ‘they’). The initial '''''e-''''' of the fourth person singular is optional in all forms except for the nominative, instrumental, and accusative. The first person dual is used exclusively for the inclusive (“you and I”); exclusive usage (“someone else and I”) defaults to the plural. The first person plural may be used for both inclusive and exclusive. Sometimes, colloquially, the first person dual may be used to refer inclusively to plural persons to emphasize inclusivity over number. | |||
==Adpositions== | ==Adpositions== | ||
All adpositions in Zjenav precede the objects they modify, and are therefore prepositions. Grammatically, they are fairly straightforward, but it may be helpful to list some of the more common prepositions here and indicate what noun case should be expected when using them. Nearly all prepositions are followed by nouns in the accusative case, but there is an exception concerning locational prepositions and objects which are in motion, which are followed by the dative. This is analogous to the difference between the English prepositions ''in'' or ''on'' (stationary) and ''into'' or ''onto'' (in motion). | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Prp | |||
! Meaning | |||
! Case | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[dum#Zjenav|dum]]'' | |||
| with | |||
| accusative | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[ke#Zjenav|ke]]'' | |||
| at, in (''a place'') | |||
| accusative | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[qwa#Zjenav|qwa]]'' | |||
| by, beside, next to | |||
| dative (''moving''), accusative (''stationary'') | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[ur#Zjenav|ur]]'' | |||
| in, into | |||
| dative (''moving''), accusative (''stationary'') | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[um#Zjenav|um]]'' | |||
| on, onto | |||
| dative (''moving''), accusative (''stationary'') | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[eisj#Zjenav|eisj]]'' | |||
| under | |||
| dative (''moving''), accusative (''stationary'') | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[go#Zjenav|go]]'' | |||
| from | |||
| genitive | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[kae#Zjenav|kae]]'' | |||
| to, towards | |||
| accusative | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[korei#Zjenav|korei]]'' | |||
| without | |||
| accusative | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[sjam#Zjenav|sjam]]'' | |||
| in front of | |||
| dative (''moving''), accusative (''stationary'') | |||
|- | |||
! ''[[ra#Zjenav|ra]]'' | |||
| through | |||
| dative (''moving''), accusative (''stationary'') | |||
|} | |||
==Adjectives== | ==Adjectives== | ||
Adjectives nearly always follow the noun they modify. Adjectives do not inflect for animacy, case, or number. | |||
===Predicative Adjectives=== | ===Predicative Adjectives=== | ||
Some words that are classified as adjectives are more accurately verbal clauses which operate on a noun in the same manner as a basic adjective, and which are generally translated as adjectives, but their inflections are different because they are actually verbs. For example, ''[[sjenevet#Zjenav|sjenevet]]'' ‘reflective’ is actually the third person singular of the verb ''[[sjeneve#Zjenav|sjeneve]]'' ‘to reflect’, so ‘a reflective surface’ ''[[sazjan#Zjenav|sazjan]] [[sjenevet#Zjenav|sjenevet]]'' would more accurately be translated as ‘a surface which reflects’. The plural, in turn, takes a verbal ending instead of an adjectival one: ''[[sazjan#Zjenav|sazjanat]] [[sjenevet#Zjenav|sjeneviu]]'' ‘reflective surfaces’. | |||
===Phrasal Adjectives=== | ===Phrasal Adjectives=== | ||
Other words that are classified as adjectives are more accurately noun phrases which operate on another noun in the same manner as a basic adjective, and which are generally translated as adjectives, but their inflections are different because they are actually nouns inflected for a case such as the instrumental or genitive. For example, ''[[tepsahurat#Zjenav|tepsahurat]]'' ‘winged’ is the dual instrumental of ''[[tepsah#Zjenav|tepsah]]'' ‘wing’, so ''[[parunkwe#Zjenav|parunkwe]] [[tepsahurat#Zjenav|tepsahurat]]'' might be translated as ‘winged bird’, but literally means bird with-a-pair-of-wings. Similarly, ''[[zjesrah#Zjenav|zjesrah]] [[korei#Zjenav|korei]] [[kursjezjil#Zjenav|kursjezjil]]'' ‘fearless man’ literally translates to ‘man without fear’. | |||
===Substantive Adjectives=== | ===Substantive Adjectives=== | ||
Many adjectives can be used as nouns or names simply by declining them according to the appropriate cases where applicable, and accounting for animacy. For example: ''[[qlakise#Zjenav|qlakise]]'' ‘cursed’ → ''[[qlakise#Noun|qlakisei]]'' ‘the cursed ones/people’ → ''[[qlakise#Noun|qlakiset]]'' ‘cursed objects’. | |||
=== | ===Adverbialisation=== | ||
In order to form an adverb from an adjective, add the suffix ''[[-esj#Zjenav|-esj]]''. E.g.: | |||
In order to form an adverb from an adjective, add the suffix [[-esj#Zjenav|-esj]]. E.g.: | * ''[[qahasj#Zjenav|qahasj]]'' ‘bad’ → ''[[qahasjesj#Zjenav|qahasjesj]]'' ‘badly’ | ||
* [[qahasj#Zjenav|qahasj]] ‘bad’ → [[qahasjesj#Zjenav|qahasjesj]] ‘badly’ | * ''[[lazjis#Zjenav|lazjis]]'' ‘new’ → ''[[lazjisesj#Zjenav|lazjisesj]]'' ‘newly’ | ||
* [[lazjis#Zjenav|lazjis]] ‘new’ → [[lazjisesj#Zjenav|lazjisesj]] ‘newly’ | * ''[[gusle#Zjenav|gusle]]'' ‘thick’ → ''[[guslesj#Zjenav|guslesj]]'' ‘thickly’ | ||
* [[gusle#Zjenav|gusle]] ‘thick’ → [[guslesj#Zjenav|guslesj]] ‘thickly’ | |||
==Verbs== | ==Verbs== | ||
Verbs can be inflected to indicate past, present, and future tenses. Verbs are generally divided into five “classes” based on the vowel used in their endings (roughly analogous to the -er, -ir, and -re verbs of French, or the weak -jan, -ōn, -ān, and -nan verbs of early Germanic.) Most conjugations are fairly similar, but changing the thematic vowel causes slight changes to some of the endings. | Verbs can be inflected to indicate past, present, and future tenses. Verbs are generally divided into five “classes” based on the vowel used in their endings (roughly analogous to the ''-er'', ''-ir'', and ''-re'' verbs of French, or the weak ''-jan'', ''-ōn'', ''-ān'', and ''-nan'' verbs of early Germanic.) Most conjugations are fairly similar, but changing the thematic vowel causes slight changes to some of the endings. | ||
===The Copula=== | ===The Copula=== | ||
Zjenav is a “zero-copula” or “null-copula” language. This means that the most basic copula | Zjenav is a “zero-copula” or “null-copula” language. This means that the most basic copula – which in English is the verb ‘be’ (including the inflections ''am'', ''are'', and ''is'') in sentences like ‘That is a house’ or ‘I am a teacher’ – is eliminated from the language. However, it doesn’t completely pattern with other null-copula languages which do away with the verb in its entirety. Instead, the verb is replaced by the particle '''''[[zji#Zjenav|zji]]'''''. ''[[zji#Zjenav|Zji]]'' is not a verb (it is a particle or an adverb) and does not inflect for person or number, but replaces the copula in most instances. | ||
In phrases where a locational copula is needed, the verb [[i#Zjenav|i]] is used, usually with a dative phrase. While [[i#Zjenav|i]] is more of a verb than [[zji#Zjenav|zji]], it isn’t so much a null-copula as a null-stem verb, consisting only of the verbal endings. | In phrases where a locational copula is needed, the verb '''''[[i#Zjenav|i]]''''' is used, usually with a dative phrase. While ''[[i#Zjenav|i]]'' is more of a verb than ''[[zji#Zjenav|zji]]'', it isn’t so much a null-copula as a null-stem verb, consisting only of the verbal endings. | ||
===Conjugation=== | ===Conjugation=== | ||
All verbs have a single type of conjugation. Pronouns and particles may (optionally) be contracted if a verb begins with a vowel. All verbs end in a vowel, and conjugation is based on the final vowel of the verb. The first person dual and plural have the same conjugation, as do the third and fourth person plural. The third and fourth person ''singular'', however, often differ. In all there are ten conjugations based on the various vowel stems. | |||
====The Single-Vowel Stems==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| | |||
!width=100| a-stem | |||
!width=100| e-stem | |||
!width=100| i-stem | |||
!width=100| o-stem | |||
!width=100| u-stem | |||
|- | |||
| '''''[[maqa#Zjenav|maqa]]'''''<br />‘to strike’ | |||
| '''''[[zjurve#Zjenav|zjurve]]'''''<br />‘to think’ | |||
| '''''[[lasi#Zjenav|lasi]]'''''<br />‘to meet’ | |||
| '''''[[ligo#Zjenav|ligo]]'''''<br />‘to push’ | |||
| '''''[[meiku#Zjenav|meiku]]'''''<br />‘to lie’ | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''1sg'' | |||
! qa | |||
| maq-'''a''' | |||
| zjurv-'''e''' | |||
| las-'''i''' | |||
| lig-'''o''' | |||
| meik-'''u''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''2sg'' | |||
! asj | |||
| maq-'''e''' | |||
| zjurv-'''e''' | |||
| las-'''e''' | |||
| lig-'''e''' | |||
| meik-'''e''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''3sg'' | |||
! rah, rei | |||
| maq-'''et''' | |||
| zjurv-'''et''' | |||
| las-'''et''' | |||
| lig-'''et''' | |||
| meik-'''et''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''4sg'' | |||
! ek | |||
| maq-'''at''' | |||
| zjurv-'''et''' | |||
| las-'''it''' | |||
| lig-'''ot''' | |||
| meik-'''ut''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''1du/pl'' | |||
! qae, qai | |||
| maq-'''aqa''' | |||
| zjurv-'''eqa''' | |||
| las-'''iqa''' | |||
| lig-'''oqa''' | |||
| meik-'''uqa''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''2pl'' | |||
! asji | |||
| maq-'''asj''' | |||
| zjurv-'''esj''' | |||
| las-'''isj''' | |||
| lig-'''osj''' | |||
| meik-'''usj''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''3/4pl'' | |||
! rai, kat | |||
| maq-'''iu''' | |||
| zjurv-'''iu''' | |||
| las-'''iu''' | |||
| lig-'''iu''' | |||
| meik-'''iu''' | |||
|} | |||
Verbs whose stems end in a palatalized consonant ('''sj''', '''zj''', '''tj''', or '''dj''') take the ending of '''–u''' for the third and fourth person plural instead of '''–iu'''. E.g. ''[[gadji#Zjenav|gadji]]'' ‘to have’ → ''[[rai#Zjenav|rai]] [[gadji#Zjenav|gadju]]'', not **''gadjiu''. | |||
====The Diphthong Stems==== | |||
Verbs which end with a diphthong also have a slightly different conjugation based on the phonology of the language. Only five of the eight diphthongs are verb stems: '''-au''', '''iu''', and '''ui''' never occur at the end of a verb. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| | |||
!width=100| ae-stem | |||
!width=100| ai-stem | |||
!width=100| ao-stem | |||
!width=100| ei-stem | |||
!width=100| oi-stem | |||
|- | |||
| '''''[[gurae#Zjenav|gurae]]'''''<br />‘to sit’ | |||
| '''''[[djahai#Zjenav|djahai]]'''''<br />‘to burn’ | |||
| '''''[[ponao#Zjenav|ponao]]'''''<br />‘to stand’ | |||
| '''''[[vanei#Zjenav|vanei]]'''''<br />‘to sing’ | |||
| '''''[[sjenoi#Zjenav|sjenoi]]'''''<br />‘to flow’ | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''1sg'' | |||
! qa | |||
| gur-'''ae''' | |||
| djah-'''ai''' | |||
| pon-'''ao''' | |||
| van-'''ei''' | |||
| sjen-'''oi''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''2sg'' | |||
! asj | |||
| gur-'''ae''' | |||
| djah-'''ae''' | |||
| pon-'''ae''' | |||
| van-'''ei''' | |||
| sjen-'''oye''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''3sg'' | |||
! rah, rei | |||
| gur-'''aet''' | |||
| djah-'''aet''' | |||
| pon-'''aet''' | |||
| van-'''eit''' | |||
| sjen-'''oyet''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''4sg'' | |||
! ek | |||
| gur-'''aet''' | |||
| djah-'''ait''' | |||
| pon-'''aot''' | |||
| van-'''eit''' | |||
| sjen-'''oit''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''1du/pl'' | |||
! qae, qai | |||
| gur-'''aeqa''' | |||
| djah-'''aiqa''' | |||
| pon-'''aoqa''' | |||
| van-'''eiqa''' | |||
| sjen-'''oiqa''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''2pl'' | |||
! asji | |||
| gur-'''aesj''' | |||
| djah-'''aisj''' | |||
| pon-'''aosj''' | |||
| van-'''eisj''' | |||
| sjen-'''oisj''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''3/4pl'' | |||
! rai, kat | |||
| gur-'''ayu''' | |||
| djah-'''ayu''' | |||
| pon-'''oyu''' | |||
| van-'''eyu''' | |||
| sjen-'''oyu''' | |||
|} | |||
===Past and Future Tense=== | ===Past and Future Tense=== | ||
Past and future tense are formed with particles which do not affect the inflection. In the past tense, the verb is followed by the particle '''''[[la#Zjenav|la]]''''', while in the future it is preceded by '''''[[ra#Zjenav|ra]]'''''. (When a verb begins with a vowel, '''''[[ra#Zjenav|ra]]''''' contracts to '''r’'''.) Tenses are illustrated here with the verb '''''[[djaya#Zjenav|djaya]]''''' ‘to come’: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
!colspan=2| | |||
!width=100| Past | |||
!width=100| Present | |||
!width=100| Future | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''1sg'' | |||
! qa | |||
| djay-'''a''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''a''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''a''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''2sg'' | |||
! asj | |||
| djay-'''e''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''e''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''e''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''3sg'' | |||
! rah, rei | |||
| djay-'''et''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''et''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''et''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''4sg'' | |||
! ek | |||
| djay-'''at''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''at''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''at''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''1du/pl'' | |||
! qae, qai | |||
| djay-'''aqa''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''aqa''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''aqa''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''2pl'' | |||
! asji | |||
| djay-'''asj''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''asj''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''asj''' | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align: right;"| ''3/4pl'' | |||
! rai, kat | |||
| djay-'''u''' '''la''' | |||
| djay-'''u''' | |||
| '''ra''' djay-'''u''' | |||
|} | |||
===Negation=== | ===Negation=== | ||
To form the negative, simply add the adverb ''[[qra#Zjenav|qra]]'' ‘not’ before the verb. E.g.: | To form the negative, simply add the adverb '''''[[qra#Zjenav|qra]]''''' ‘not’ before the verb. E.g.: | ||
* ''[[qa#Zjenav|Qa]] [[zjahlei#Zjenav|zjahlei]] [[barezjil#Zjenav|barezjil]].'' ‘I want to go.’ → ''[[qa#Zjenav|Qa]] [[qra#Zjenav|qra]] [[zjahlei#Zjenav|zjahlei]] [[barezjil#Zjenav|barezjil]].'' ‘I don’t want to go.’ | * ''[[qa#Zjenav|Qa]] [[zjahlei#Zjenav|zjahlei]] [[barezjil#Zjenav|barezjil]].'' ‘I want to go.’ → ''[[qa#Zjenav|Qa]] [[qra#Zjenav|qra]] [[zjahlei#Zjenav|zjahlei]] [[barezjil#Zjenav|barezjil]].'' ‘I don’t want to go.’ | ||
Line 1,320: | Line 2,071: | ||
* ''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[uqqu#Zjenav|uqqwe]] [[unku#Zjenav|unku]].'' ‘You are eating the egg.’ → ''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[qra#Zjenav|qr’]] [[uqqu#Zjenav|uqqwe]] [[la#Zjenav|la]] [[unku#Zjenav|unku]].'' ‘You did not eat the egg.’ | * ''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[uqqu#Zjenav|uqqwe]] [[unku#Zjenav|unku]].'' ‘You are eating the egg.’ → ''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[qra#Zjenav|qr’]] [[uqqu#Zjenav|uqqwe]] [[la#Zjenav|la]] [[unku#Zjenav|unku]].'' ‘You did not eat the egg.’ | ||
===Imperative=== | |||
To form the imperative in the singular, the second person singular conjugation is appended with '''''–sj''''', though this may be elided after a verb with a palatal stem. In the plural, the imperative form is identical to the standard conjugation. E.g.: | |||
* ''[[asj#Zjenav|Asj]] [[djaya#Zjenav|djaye]] [[vul#Zjenav|vul]].'' ‘You come here.’ → ''[[djaya#Zjenav|Djayesj]] [[vul#Zjenav|vul]].'' ‘Come here.’ | |||
* ''[[asji#Zjenav|Asji]] [[djaya#Zjenav|djayasj]] [[vul#Zjenav|vul]].'' ‘You all come here.’ → ''[[djaya#Zjenav|Djayasj]] [[vul#Zjenav|vul]].'' ‘(You all,) come here.’ | |||
===Reflexive and Reciprocal Voices=== | ===Reflexive and Reciprocal Voices=== | ||
Verbs may be shown to be reflexive or reciprocal by inserting the appropriate adverb below before the verb. In many Western languages, these are thought of as pronouns, and many languages treat them as such, though in Zjenav they are more appropriately considered adverbs, as their function is to alter the voice of the verb. (Note that only plural subjects can take a reciprocal adverb.) | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
!width=100| Nom. | |||
!width=100| Refl. | |||
!width=100| Recip. | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[qa#Zjenav|qa]]'''<br />''I'' | |||
|rowspan=3| '''[[qazj#Zjenav|qazj]]'''<br />''myself''<br />''ourselves'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1du.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[qae#Zjenav|qae]]'''<br />''you & I'' | |||
|rowspan=2| '''[[qazjet#Zjenav|qazjet]]'''<br />''each other''<br />''one another'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1pl.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[qai#Zjenav|qai]]'''<br />''we (all)'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2sg.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[asj#Zjenav|asj]]'''<br />''you'' | |||
|rowspan=2| '''[[sjizj#Zjenav|sjizj]]'''<br />''yourself''<br />''yourselves'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">2pl.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[asji#Zjenav|(a)sji]]'''<br />''you (all)'' | |||
| '''[[sjizjet#Zjenav|sjizjet]]'''<br />''each other''<br />''one another'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.masc</span>'' | |||
| '''[[rah#Zjenav|rah]]'''<br />''he'' | |||
|rowspan=3| '''[[razj#Zjenav|razj]]'''<br />''himself''<br />''herself''<br />''themselves'' | |||
|rowspan=2 style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3sg.fem.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[rei#Zjenav|rei]]'''<br />''she'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3pl.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[rai#Zjenav|rai]]'''<br />''they (anim)'' | |||
| '''[[razjet#Zjenav|razjet]]'''<br />''each other''<br />''one another'' | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">4sg.</span><ref>The term ''fourth person'' can mean many different things, linguistically speaking, depending on the language in question, and is usually avoided because of any confusion that may arise therefrom. In this text I present it as a simple alternative to describing the inanimate pronouns; persons 1‒3 are ''actual'' “persons,” while the fourth person here is not. It is equally valid to describe the “third person inanimate” in contrast to the “third person animate,” but that frankly just takes up a lot room in an otherwise concise chart.</ref>'' | |||
| '''[[ek#Zjenav|ek]]'''<br />''it'' | |||
|rowspan=2| '''[[kesj#Zjenav|kesj]]'''<br />''itself''<br />''themselves'' | |||
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;"| - | |||
|- | |||
! ''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">4pl.</span>'' | |||
| '''[[kat#Zjenav|kat]]'''<br />''they (inan)'' | |||
|rowspan=2| '''[[kasjet#Zjenav|kasjet]]'''<br />''each other''<br />''one another'' | |||
|} | |||
==Forming Questions== | ==Forming Questions== | ||
Line 1,355: | Line 2,164: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|width= | |width=65| N > A | ||
|width=100| ''[[-ok#Zjenav|-ok]]'' | |width=100| '''''[[-ok#Zjenav|-ok]]''''' | ||
|width=700| Turns a noun into an adjective that is like the noun. | |width=700| Turns a noun into an adjective that is like the noun. | ||
* ''[[lezasj#Zjenav|lezasj]]'' ‘cloud’ → ''[[lezasjok#Zjenav|lezasjok]]'' ‘cloudy’ | * ''[[lezasj#Zjenav|lezasj]]'' ‘cloud’ → ''[[lezasjok#Zjenav|lezasjok]]'' ‘cloudy’ | ||
Line 1,362: | Line 2,171: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| N > A | | N > A | ||
| ''[[-uil#Zjenav|-uil]]'' | | '''''[[-uil#Zjenav|-uil]]''''' | ||
| Turns a noun into a compositional adjective. | | Turns a noun into a compositional adjective. | ||
* ''[[esjit#Zjenav|esjit]]'' ‘bone’ → ''[[esjituil#Zjenav|esjituil]]'' ‘made of bone’ | * ''[[esjit#Zjenav|esjit]]'' ‘bone’ → ''[[esjituil#Zjenav|esjituil]]'' ‘made of bone’ | ||
Line 1,368: | Line 2,177: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| N > V | | N > V | ||
| ''[[-izi#Zjenav|-izi]]'' | | '''''[[-izi#Zjenav|-izi]]''''' | ||
| Turns a noun (or adjective) into a verb. | | Turns a noun (or adjective) into a verb. | ||
* ''[[savri#Zjenav|savri]]'' ‘grease’ → ''[[savrizi#Zjenav|savrizi]]'' ‘to annoint’ | * ''[[savri#Zjenav|savri]]'' ‘grease’ → ''[[savrizi#Zjenav|savrizi]]'' ‘to annoint’ | ||
Line 1,378: | Line 2,187: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|width= | |width=65| V > A | ||
|width=100| ''[[-dji#Zjenav|-dji]]'' | |width=100| '''''[[-dji#Zjenav|-dji]]''''' | ||
|width=700| Turns a verb into an adjectival past participle. | |width=700| Turns a verb into an adjectival past participle. | ||
* ''[[kotresji#Zjenav|kotresji]]'' ‘to steal’ → ''[[kotresjidji#Zjenav|kotresjidji]]'' ‘stolen’ | * ''[[kotresji#Zjenav|kotresji]]'' ‘to steal’ → ''[[kotresjidji#Zjenav|kotresjidji]]'' ‘stolen’ | ||
Line 1,385: | Line 2,194: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| V > N | | V > N | ||
| ''[[-zjil#Zjenav|-zjil]]'' | | '''''[[-zjil#Zjenav|-zjil]]''''' | ||
| A verbal infinitive can be used directly as an inanimate abstract noun. | | A verbal infinitive can be used directly as an inanimate abstract noun. | ||
* ''[[apisko#Zjenav|apisko]]'' ‘to hear’ → ''[[apiskozjil#Zjenav|apiskozjil]]'' ‘hearing’ | * ''[[apisko#Zjenav|apisko]]'' ‘to hear’ → ''[[apiskozjil#Zjenav|apiskozjil]]'' ‘hearing’ | ||
Line 1,391: | Line 2,200: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| V > N | | V > N | ||
| ''[[-tih#Zjenav|-tih]]'' | | '''''[[-tih#Zjenav|-tih]]''''' | ||
| Turns a verb into a tool used for the purpose of [verb]ing. | | Turns a verb into a tool used for the purpose of [verb]ing. | ||
* ''[[desi#Zjenav|desi]]'' ‘to see’ → ''[[desitih#Zjenav|desitih]]'' ‘lens’ | * ''[[desi#Zjenav|desi]]'' ‘to see’ → ''[[desitih#Zjenav|desitih]]'' ‘lens’ | ||
Line 1,397: | Line 2,206: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| V > N | | V > N | ||
| ''[[-mazj#Zjenav|-mazj]]'' | | '''''[[-mazj#Zjenav|-mazj]]''''' | ||
| Turns a verb into an (animate) agent who does the verb. | | Turns a verb into an (animate) agent who does the verb. | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[granza#Zjenav|granza]]'' ‘to lead’ → ''[[granzamazj#Zjenav|granzamazj]]'' ‘leader’ | ||
* ''[[ | * ''[[mahlizi#Zjenav|mahlizi]]'' ‘to kill’ → ''[[mahlizimazj#Zjenav|mahlizimazj]]'' ‘killer, assassin’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| V > N | | V > N | ||
| ''[[-atj#Zjenav|-atj]]'' | | '''''[[-atj#Zjenav|-atj]]''''' | ||
| Turns a verb into an (inanimate) agent which does the verb. | | Turns a verb into an (inanimate) agent which does the verb. | ||
* ''[[sjeneve#Zjenav|sjeneve]]'' ‘to reflect’ → ''[[sjenevatj#Zjenav|sjenevatj]]'' ‘mirror’ | * ''[[sjeneve#Zjenav|sjeneve]]'' ‘to reflect’ → ''[[sjenevatj#Zjenav|sjenevatj]]'' ‘mirror’ | ||
Line 1,409: | Line 2,218: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| V > V | | V > V | ||
| ''[[-kiuzji#Zjenav|-kiuzji]]'' | | '''''[[-kiuzji#Zjenav|-kiuzji]]''''' | ||
| Turns an intransitive verb into a transitive or causative verb. | | Turns an intransitive verb into a transitive or causative verb. | ||
* ''[[zjohma#Zjenav|zjohma]]'' ‘to turn’ → ''[[zjohmakiuzji#Zjenav|zjohmakiuzji]]'' ‘to turn (sth), to make (sth) turn’ | * ''[[zjohma#Zjenav|zjohma]]'' ‘to turn’ → ''[[zjohmakiuzji#Zjenav|zjohmakiuzji]]'' ‘to turn (sth), to make (sth) turn’ | ||
Line 1,416: | Line 2,225: | ||
===Derivation from Adjectives=== | ===Derivation from Adjectives=== | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
|width=65| A > A-cmp | |||
|width=100| '''''[[-asj#Zjenav|-asj]]''''' | |||
|width=700| Makes an adjective comparative. | |||
* ''[[ravaoq#Zjenav|ravaoq]]'' ‘wet’ → ''[[ravaoqasj#Zjenav|ravaoqasj]]'' ‘wetter’ | |||
* ''[[ankeh#Zjenav|ankeh]]'' ‘high’ → ''[[ankehasj#Zjenav|ankehasj]]'' ‘higher’ | |||
* ''[[sjam#Zjenav|sjam]]'' ‘in front of’ → ''[[sjamasj#Zjenav|sjamasj]]'' ‘first’ | |||
|- | |||
| A > A-sup | |||
| '''''[[-asjit#Zjenav|-asjit]]''''' | |||
| Makes an adjective superlative. | |||
* ''[[kezj#Zjenav|kezj]]'' ‘good’ → ''[[kasjit#Zjenav|kasjit]]'' ‘best’ (irregular) | |||
* ''[[ankeh#Zjenav|ankeh]]'' ‘high’ → ''[[ankehasjit#Zjenav|ankehasjit]]'' ‘highest’ | |||
|- | |||
| A > Adv | |||
| '''''[[-esj#Zjenav|-esj]]''''' | |||
| Turns an adjective into an adverb. | |||
* ''[[trizja#Zjenav|trizja]]'' ‘correct’ → ''[[trizjesj#Zjenav|trizjesj]]'' ‘correctly’ | |||
* ''[[dulam#Zjenav|dulam]]'' ‘warm’ → ''[[dulamesj#Zjenav|dulamesj]]'' ‘warmly’ | |||
|- | |||
| A > N | |||
| '''''[[-in#Zjenav|-in]]''''' | |||
| Turns an adjective into a noun meaning ‘state of [adj]’. | |||
* ''[[dulam#Zjenav|dulam]]'' ‘warm’ → ''[[dulamin#Zjenav|dulamin]]'' ‘warmth’ | |||
* ''[[ankeh#Zjenav|ankeh]]'' ‘high’ → ''[[ankehin#Zjenav|ankehin]]'' ‘height’ | |||
|- | |||
| A > V | |||
| '''''[[-ini#Zjenav|-(i)ni]]''''' | |||
| Turns an adjective or preposition into a verb meaning ‘becoming [adj]’. | |||
* ''[[dum#Zjenav|dum]]'' ‘together’ → ''[[dumini#Zjenav|dumini]]'' ‘to gather’ | |||
* ''[[dehla#Zjenav|dehla]]'' ‘thin’ → ''[[dehlani#Zjenav|dehlani]]'' ‘to become thin’ | |||
|- | |||
| A > V | |||
| '''''[[-izi#Zjenav|-(i)zi]]''''' | |||
| Turns an adjective (or noun) into a verb. | |||
* ''[[zehru#Zjenav|zehru]]'' ‘bitter’ → ''[[zehruzi#Zjenav|zehruzi]]'' ‘to embitter, to make bitter’ | |||
* ''[[zaruqo#Zjenav|zaruqo]]'' ‘black’ → ''[[zaruqozi#Zjenav|zaruqozi]]'' ‘to blacken’ | |||
|} | |||
===Derivation from Numbers=== | ===Derivation from Numbers=== | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
|width=65| # > A | |||
|width=100| '''''[[-aor#Zjenav|-aor]]''''' | |||
|width=700| Turns a cardinal number into an ordinal (adjective). Replaces a final vowel, but degrades to –ur after –u. Final –r transmutes to –l after a rhotic in the stem. | |||
* ''[[djat#Zjenav|djat]]'' ‘three’ → ''[[djataor#Zjenav|djataor]]'' ‘third’ | |||
* ''[[zjequ#Zjenav|zjequ]]'' ‘four’ → ''[[zjequr#Zjenav|zjequr]]'' ‘fourth’ | |||
* ''[[kehru#Zjenav|kehru]]'' ‘ten’ → ''[[kehrul#Zjenav|kehrul]]'' ‘tenth’ | |||
|} | |||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
'''[[:Category: Zjenav words|Zjenav Words]]'''<br /> | '''[[:Category: Zjenav words|Zjenav Words]]'''<br /> | ||
'''[[Zjenav/Lexicon|Zjenav Lexicon]]''' | '''[[Zjenav/Lexicon|Zjenav Lexicon]]''' | ||
===Swadesh List=== | |||
''For those of you who like this sort of thing!'' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
!width=150px| Zjenav | |||
!width=150px| English | |||
! | |||
!width=150px| Zjenav | |||
!width=150px| English | |||
! | |||
!width=150px| Zjenav | |||
!width=150px| English | |||
|- | |||
! 001 | |||
| '''[[qa#Zjenav|qa]]''' | |||
| I | |||
! 070 | |||
| '''[[kwolmon#Zjenav|kwolmon]]''' | |||
| feather | |||
! 139 | |||
| '''[[buraku#Zjenav|buraku]]''' | |||
| to count | |||
|- | |||
! 002 | |||
| '''[[asj#Zjenav|asj]]''' | |||
| you | |||
! 071 | |||
| '''[[tosjoh#Zjenav|tosjoh]]''' | |||
| hair (on head) | |||
! 140 | |||
| '''[[zjaki#Zjenav|zjaki]]''' | |||
| to say | |||
|- | |||
! 003 | |||
| '''[[rah#Zjenav|rah]]''', '''[[rei#Zjenav|rei]]''', '''[[ek#Zjenav|ek]]''' | |||
| he, she, it | |||
! 072 | |||
| '''[[zuhluzj#Zjenav|zuhluzj]]''' | |||
| head | |||
! 141 | |||
| '''[[vanei#Zjenav|vanei]]''' | |||
| to sing | |||
|- | |||
! 004 | |||
| '''[[qai#Zjenav|qai]]''', '''[[qae#Zjenav|qae]]''' | |||
| we | |||
! 073 | |||
| '''[[polme#Zjenav|polme]]''' | |||
| ear | |||
! 142 | |||
| '''[[davao#Zjenav|davao]]''' | |||
| to play | |||
|- | |||
! 005 | |||
| '''[[asji#Zjenav|asji]]''' | |||
| you | |||
! 074 | |||
| '''[[paksa#Zjenav|paksa]]''' | |||
| eye | |||
! 143 | |||
| '''[[desjoki#Zjenav|desjoki]]''' | |||
| to float | |||
|- | |||
! 006 | |||
| '''[[rai#Zjenav|rai]]''', '''[[kat#Zjenav|kat]]''' | |||
| they | |||
! 075 | |||
| '''[[muzju#Zjenav|muzju]]''' | |||
| nose | |||
! 144 | |||
| '''[[sjenoi#Zjenav|sjenoi]]''' | |||
| to flow | |||
|- | |||
! 007 | |||
| '''[[vai#Zjenav|vai]]''' (anim), '''[[voq#Zjenav|voq]]''' (inam) | |||
| this | |||
! 076 | |||
| '''[[qanuh#Zjenav|qanuh]]''' | |||
| mouth | |||
! 145 | |||
| '''[[tjezi#Zjenav|tjezi]]''' | |||
| to freeze | |||
|- | |||
! 008 | |||
| '''[[tai#Zjenav|tai]]''' (anim), '''[[toq#Zjenav|toq]]''' (inam) | |||
| that | |||
! 077 | |||
| '''[[demuzj#Zjenav|demuzj]]''' | |||
| tooth | |||
! 146 | |||
| '''[[sjidani#Zjenav|sjidani]]''' | |||
| to swell | |||
|- | |||
! 009 | |||
| '''[[vul#Zjenav|vul]]''' | |||
| here | |||
! 078 | |||
| '''[[gwalto#Zjenav|gwalto]]''' | |||
| tongue | |||
! 147 | |||
| '''[[hasjan#Zjenav|hasjan]]''' | |||
| sun | |||
|- | |||
! 010 | |||
| '''[[tul#Zjenav|tul]]''' | |||
| there | |||
! 079 | |||
| '''[[lahke#Zjenav|lahke]]''' | |||
| fingernail | |||
! 148 | |||
| '''[[rehazj#Zjenav|rehazj]]''' | |||
| moon | |||
|- | |||
! 011 | |||
| '''[[zai#Zjenav|zai]]''' | |||
| who | |||
! 080 | |||
| '''[[krub#Zjenav|krub]]''' | |||
| foot | |||
! 149 | |||
| '''[[isjil#Zjenav|isjil]]''' | |||
| star | |||
|- | |||
! 012 | |||
| '''[[zoq#Zjenav|zoq]]''' | |||
| what | |||
! 081 | |||
| '''[[muhla#Zjenav|muhla]]''' | |||
| leg | |||
! 150 | |||
| '''[[rava#Zjenav|rava]]''' | |||
| water | |||
|- | |||
! 013 | |||
| '''[[zul#Zjenav|zul]]''' | |||
| where | |||
! 082 | |||
| '''[[djiran#Zjenav|djiran]]''' | |||
| knee | |||
! 151 | |||
| '''[[zahna#Zjenav|zahna]]''' | |||
| rain | |||
|- | |||
! 014 | |||
| '''[[zem#Zjenav|zem]]''' | |||
| when | |||
! 083 | |||
| '''[[djasko#Zjenav|djasko]]''' | |||
| hand | |||
! 152 | |||
| '''[[nivul#Zjenav|nivul]]''' | |||
| river | |||
|- | |||
! 015 | |||
| '''[[zesj#Zjenav|zesj]]''' | |||
| how | |||
! 084 | |||
| '''[[tepsah#Zjenav|tepsah]]''' | |||
| wing | |||
! 153 | |||
| '''[[aquva#Zjenav|aquva]]''' | |||
| lake | |||
|- | |||
! 016 | |||
| '''[[qra#Zjenav|qra]]''' | |||
| not | |||
! 085 | |||
| '''[[ilkarav#Zjenav|ilkarav]]''' | |||
| belly, abdomen | |||
! 154 | |||
| '''[[zjoran#Zjenav|zjoran]]''' | |||
| sea | |||
|- | |||
! 017 | |||
| '''[[halva#Zjenav|halva]]''' | |||
| all | |||
! 086 | |||
| '''[[andjis#Zjenav|andjis]]''' | |||
| guts, entrails | |||
! 155 | |||
| '''[[raha#Zjenav|raha]]''' | |||
| salt | |||
|- | |||
! 018 | |||
| '''[[bavozj#Zjenav|bavozj]]''' | |||
| many | |||
! 087 | |||
| '''[[bren#Zjenav|bren]]''' | |||
| neck | |||
! 156 | |||
| '''[[zaka#Zjenav|zaka]]''' | |||
| stone | |||
|- | |||
! 019 | |||
| '''[[hindazj#Zjenav|hindazj]]''' | |||
| some | |||
! 088 | |||
| '''[[paksjah#Zjenav|paksjah]]''' | |||
| back | |||
! 157 | |||
| '''[[sjikah#Zjenav|sjikah]]''' | |||
| sand | |||
|- | |||
! 020 | |||
| '''[[tehno#Zjenav|tehno]]''' | |||
| few | |||
! 089 | |||
| '''[[sjulva#Zjenav|sjulva]]''' | |||
| breast | |||
! 158 | |||
| '''[[dogul#Zjenav|dogul]]''' | |||
| dust | |||
|- | |||
! 021 | |||
| '''[[djehra#Zjenav|djehra]]''' | |||
| other | |||
! 090 | |||
| '''[[sangah#Zjenav|sangah]]''' | |||
| heart | |||
! 159 | |||
| '''[[gorul#Zjenav|gorul]]''' | |||
| earth, soil, dirt | |||
|- | |||
! 022 | |||
| '''[[ha#Zjenav|ha]]''' | |||
| one | |||
! 091 | |||
| '''[[tjetur#Zjenav|tjetur]]''' | |||
| liver | |||
! 160 | |||
| '''[[lezasj#Zjenav|lezasj]]''' | |||
| cloud | |||
|- | |||
! 023 | |||
| '''[[qwe#Zjenav|qwe]]''' | |||
| two | |||
! 092 | |||
| '''[[hatje#Zjenav|hatje]]''' | |||
| to drink | |||
! 161 | |||
| '''[[pehla#Zjenav|pehla]]''' | |||
| fog, mist | |||
|- | |||
! 024 | |||
| '''[[djat#Zjenav|djat]]''' | |||
| three | |||
! 093 | |||
| '''[[uqqu#Zjenav|uqqu]]''' | |||
| to eat | |||
! 162 | |||
| '''[[aqwehma#Zjenav|aqwehma]]''' | |||
| sky | |||
|- | |||
! 025 | |||
| '''[[zjequ#Zjenav|zjequ]]''' | |||
| four | |||
! 094 | |||
| '''[[pika#Zjenav|pika]]''' | |||
| to bite | |||
! 163 | |||
| '''[[suzje#Zjenav|suzje]]''' | |||
| wind | |||
|- | |||
! 026 | |||
| '''[[uvuh#Zjenav|uvuh]]''' | |||
| five | |||
! 095 | |||
| '''[[takwate#Zjenav|takwate]]''' | |||
| to suck | |||
! 164 | |||
| '''[[hisra#Zjenav|hisra]]''' | |||
| snow | |||
|- | |||
! 027 | |||
| '''[[nuzjat#Zjenav|nuzjat]]''' | |||
| big, large | |||
! 096 | |||
| '''[[stuqutji#Zjenav|stuqutji]]''' | |||
| to spit | |||
! 165 | |||
| '''[[sehlasj#Zjenav|sehlasj]]''' | |||
| ice | |||
|- | |||
! 028 | |||
| '''[[djezera#Zjenav|djezera]]''' | |||
| long | |||
! 097 | |||
| '''[[qwahnatu#Zjenav|qwahnatu]]''' | |||
| to vomit | |||
! 166 | |||
| '''[[dimma#Zjenav|dimma]]''' | |||
| smoke | |||
|- | |||
! 029 | |||
| '''[[gwammah#Zjenav|gwammah]]''' | |||
| wide, broad | |||
! 098 | |||
| '''[[hafasji#Zjenav|hafasji]]''' | |||
| to blow | |||
! 167 | |||
| '''[[ugme#Zjenav|ugme]]''' | |||
| fire | |||
|- | |||
! 030 | |||
| '''[[gusle#Zjenav|gusle]]''' | |||
| thick | |||
! 099 | |||
| '''[[enahi#Zjenav|enahi]]''' | |||
| to breathe | |||
! 168 | |||
| '''[[ruhal#Zjenav|ruhal]]''' | |||
| ash, ashes | |||
|- | |||
! 031 | |||
| '''[[tunnoh#Zjenav|tunnoh]]''' | |||
| heavy | |||
! 100 | |||
| '''[[hahlati#Zjenav|hahlati]]''' | |||
| to laugh | |||
! 169 | |||
| '''[[djahai#Zjenav|djahai]]''' | |||
| burn | |||
|- | |||
! 032 | |||
| '''[[indja#Zjenav|indja]]''' | |||
| small, little | |||
! 101 | |||
| '''[[desi#Zjenav|desi]]''' | |||
| to see | |||
! 170 | |||
| '''[[sjanaq#Zjenav|sjanaq]]''' | |||
| path, road, trail | |||
|- | |||
! 033 | |||
| '''[[hrasev#Zjenav|hrasev]]''' | |||
| short | |||
! 102 | |||
| '''[[apisko#Zjenav|apisko]]''' | |||
| to hear | |||
! 171 | |||
| '''[[grisjar#Zjenav|grisjar]]''' | |||
| mountain | |||
|- | |||
! 034 | |||
| '''[[usjin#Zjenav|usjin]]''' | |||
| narrow | |||
! 103 | |||
| '''[[tjolahe#Zjenav|tjolahe]]''' | |||
| to know | |||
! 172 | |||
| '''[[nuikat#Zjenav|nuikat]]''' | |||
| red | |||
|- | |||
! 035 | |||
| '''[[dehla#Zjenav|dehla]]''' | |||
| thin | |||
! 104 | |||
| '''[[zjurve#Zjenav|zjurve]]''' | |||
| to think | |||
! 173 | |||
| '''[[djalisj#Zjenav|djalisj]]''' | |||
| green | |||
|- | |||
! 036 | |||
| '''[[azjeser#Zjenav|azjeser]]''' | |||
| woman | |||
! 105 | |||
| '''[[gwokuri#Zjenav|gwokuri]]''' | |||
| to smell | |||
! 174 | |||
| '''[[grozj#Zjenav|grozj]]''' | |||
| yellow | |||
|- | |||
! 037 | |||
| '''[[zjesrah#Zjenav|zjesrah]]''' | |||
| man | |||
! 106 | |||
| '''[[kursje#Zjenav|kursje]]''' | |||
| to fear | |||
! 175 | |||
| '''[[qwettah#Zjenav|qwettah]]''' | |||
| white | |||
|- | |||
! 038 | |||
| '''[[zjeser#Zjenav|zjeser]]''' | |||
| person | |||
! 107 | |||
| '''[[sjiqu#Zjenav|sjiqu]]''' | |||
| to sleep | |||
! 176 | |||
| '''[[zaruqo#Zjenav|zaruqo]]''' | |||
| black | |||
|- | |||
! 039 | |||
| '''[[aqeh#Zjenav|aqeh]]''' | |||
| child | |||
! 108 | |||
| '''[[vizji#Zjenav|vizji]]''' | |||
| to live | |||
! 177 | |||
| '''[[liut#Zjenav|liut]]''' | |||
| night | |||
|- | |||
! 040 | |||
| '''[[nizjan#Zjenav|nizjan]]''' | |||
| wife | |||
! 109 | |||
| '''[[gravizi#Zjenav|gravizi]]''' | |||
| to die | |||
! 178 | |||
| '''[[nadjad#Zjenav|nadjad]]''' | |||
| day | |||
|- | |||
! 041 | |||
| '''[[djuttah#Zjenav|djuttah]]''' | |||
| husband | |||
! 110 | |||
| '''[[mahlizi#Zjenav|mahlizi]]''' | |||
| to kill | |||
! 179 | |||
| '''[[sjeimaq#Zjenav|sjeimaq]]''' | |||
| year | |||
|- | |||
! 042 | |||
| '''[[mahkov#Zjenav|mahkov]]''' | |||
| mother | |||
! 111 | |||
| '''[[sjehni#Zjenav|sjehni]]''' | |||
| to fight | |||
! 180 | |||
| '''[[dulam#Zjenav|dulam]]''' | |||
| hot (weather) | |||
|- | |||
! 043 | |||
| '''[[sehkov#Zjenav|sehkov]]''' | |||
| father | |||
! 112 | |||
| '''[[hnuqatu#Zjenav|hnuqatu]]''' | |||
| to hunt | |||
! 181 | |||
| '''[[djirasj#Zjenav|djirasj]]''' | |||
| cold | |||
|- | |||
! 044 | |||
| '''[[param#Zjenav|param]]''' | |||
| animal | |||
! 113 | |||
| '''[[maqa#Zjenav|maqa]]''' | |||
| to hit | |||
! 182 | |||
| '''[[timla#Zjenav|timla]]''' | |||
| full | |||
|- | |||
! 045 | |||
| '''[[mahkis#Zjenav|mahkis]]''' | |||
| fish | |||
! 114 | |||
| '''[[trangi#Zjenav|trangi]]''' | |||
| to cut | |||
! 183 | |||
| '''[[lazjis#Zjenav|lazjis]]''' | |||
| new | |||
|- | |||
! 046 | |||
| '''[[parunkwe#Zjenav|parunkwe]]''' | |||
| bird | |||
! 115 | |||
| '''[[saluqa#Zjenav|saluqa]]''' | |||
| to split | |||
! 184 | |||
| '''[[djornah#Zjenav|djornah]]''' | |||
| old | |||
|- | |||
! 047 | |||
| '''[[qwot#Zjenav|qwot]]''' | |||
| dog | |||
! 116 | |||
| '''[[pasjiti#Zjenav|pasjiti]]''' | |||
| to stab, to pierce | |||
! 185 | |||
| '''[[kezj#Zjenav|kezj]]''' | |||
| good | |||
|- | |||
! 048 | |||
| '''[[pitj#Zjenav|pitj]]''' | |||
| louse | |||
! 117 | |||
| '''[[sjahe#Zjenav|sjahe]]''' | |||
| to scratch | |||
! 186 | |||
| '''[[qahasj#Zjenav|qahasj]]''' | |||
| bad | |||
|- | |||
! 049 | |||
| '''[[sjeq#Zjenav|sjeq]]''' | |||
| snake | |||
! 118 | |||
| '''[[berepa#Zjenav|berepa]]''' | |||
| to dig | |||
! 187 | |||
| '''[[sjirrah#Zjenav|sjirrah]]''' | |||
| rotten | |||
|- | |||
! 050 | |||
| '''[[tahni#Zjenav|tahni]]''' | |||
| worm | |||
! 119 | |||
| '''[[qrufu#Zjenav|qrufu]]''' | |||
| to swim | |||
! 188 | |||
| '''[[piruh#Zjenav|piruh]]''' | |||
| dirty | |||
|- | |||
! 051 | |||
| '''[[kweru#Zjenav|kweru]]''' | |||
| tree | |||
! 120 | |||
| '''[[onahlu#Zjenav|onahlu]]''' | |||
| to fly | |||
! 189 | |||
| '''[[mohna#Zjenav|mohna]]''' | |||
| straight | |||
|- | |||
! 052 | |||
| '''[[sjenkur#Zjenav|sjenkur]]''' | |||
| forest, woods | |||
! 121 | |||
| '''[[tuqae#Zjenav|tuqae]]''' | |||
| to walk | |||
! 190 | |||
| '''[[bunda#Zjenav|bunda]]''' | |||
| round | |||
|- | |||
! 053 | |||
| '''[[kwemqe#Zjenav|kwemqe]]''' | |||
| stick | |||
! 122 | |||
| '''[[djaya#Zjenav|djaya]]''' | |||
| come | |||
! 191 | |||
| '''[[kitj#Zjenav|kitj]]''' | |||
| sharp | |||
|- | |||
! 054 | |||
| '''[[nazu#Zjenav|nazu]]''' | |||
| fruit | |||
! 123 | |||
| '''[[meiku#Zjenav|meiku]]''' | |||
| to lie (down) | |||
! 192 | |||
| '''[[vohom#Zjenav|vohom]]''' | |||
| dull | |||
|- | |||
! 055 | |||
| '''[[gitjo#Zjenav|gitjo]]''' | |||
| seed | |||
! 124 | |||
| '''[[gurae#Zjenav|gurae]]''' | |||
| to sit | |||
! 193 | |||
| '''[[sjasj#Zjenav|sjasj]]''' | |||
| smooth | |||
|- | |||
! 056 | |||
| '''[[djendra#Zjenav|djendra]]''' | |||
| leaf | |||
! 125 | |||
| '''[[ponao#Zjenav|ponao]]''' | |||
| to stand | |||
! 194 | |||
| '''[[ravaoq#Zjenav|ravaoq]]''' | |||
| wet | |||
|- | |||
! 057 | |||
| '''[[ravu#Zjenav|ravu]]''' | |||
| root | |||
! 126 | |||
| '''[[zjohma#Zjenav|zjohma]]''' | |||
| to turn | |||
! 195 | |||
| '''[[zjuhre#Zjenav|zjuhre]]''' | |||
| dry | |||
|- | |||
! 058 | |||
| '''[[kwop#Zjenav|kwop]]''' | |||
| bark (of tree) | |||
! 127 | |||
| '''[[pozja#Zjenav|pozja]]''' | |||
| to fall | |||
! 196 | |||
| '''[[trizja#Zjenav|trizja]]''' | |||
| correct, right | |||
|- | |||
! 059 | |||
| '''[[fenav#Zjenav|fenav]]''' | |||
| flower | |||
! 128 | |||
| '''[[basri#Zjenav|basri]]''' | |||
| to give | |||
! 197 | |||
| '''[[traqo#Zjenav|traqo]]''' | |||
| near | |||
|- | |||
! 060 | |||
| '''[[dahno#Zjenav|dahno]]''' | |||
| grass | |||
! 129 | |||
| '''[[nokwa#Zjenav|nokwa]]''' | |||
| to hold | |||
! 198 | |||
| '''[[gim#Zjenav|gim]]''' | |||
| far | |||
|- | |||
! 061 | |||
| '''[[qulug#Zjenav|qulug]]''' | |||
| rope | |||
! 130 | |||
| '''[[pisu#Zjenav|pisu]]''' | |||
| to squeeze | |||
! 199 | |||
| '''[[getjilo#Zjenav|getjilo]]''' | |||
| right (hand) | |||
|- | |||
! 062 | |||
| '''[[tjurri#Zjenav|tjurri]]''' | |||
| skin | |||
! 131 | |||
| '''[[hmonno#Zjenav|hmonno]]''' | |||
| to rub | |||
! 200 | |||
| '''[[saliusj#Zjenav|saliusj]]''' | |||
| left (hand) | |||
|- | |||
! 063 | |||
| '''[[nandju#Zjenav|nandju]]''' | |||
| flesh, meat | |||
! 132 | |||
| '''[[gango#Zjenav|gango]]''' | |||
| to wash | |||
! 201 | |||
| '''[[ke#Zjenav|ke]]''' | |||
| at | |||
|- | |||
! 064 | |||
| '''[[nahul#Zjenav|nahul]]''' | |||
| blood | |||
! 133 | |||
| '''[[reina#Zjenav|reina]]''' | |||
| to wipe | |||
! 202 | |||
| '''[[ur#Zjenav|ur]]''' | |||
| in | |||
|- | |||
! 065 | |||
| '''[[esjit#Zjenav|esjit]]''' | |||
| bone | |||
! 134 | |||
| '''[[prehna#Zjenav|prehna]]''' | |||
| to pull | |||
! 203 | |||
| '''[[dum#Zjenav|dum]]''' | |||
| with | |||
|- | |||
! 066 | |||
| '''[[savri#Zjenav|savri]]''' | |||
| grease, fat | |||
! 135 | |||
| '''[[ligo#Zjenav|ligo]]''' | |||
| to push | |||
! 204 | |||
| '''[[si#Zjenav|si]]''' | |||
| and | |||
|- | |||
! 067 | |||
| '''[[unku#Zjenav|unku]]''' | |||
| egg | |||
! 136 | |||
| '''[[sjuhtu#Zjenav|sjuhtu]]''' | |||
| to throw | |||
! 205 | |||
| '''[[hu#Zjenav|hu]]''' | |||
| if | |||
|- | |||
! 068 | |||
| '''[[sjulpe#Zjenav|sjulpe]]''' | |||
| horn | |||
! 137 | |||
| '''[[zjego#Zjenav|zjego]]''' | |||
| to tie, bind | |||
! 206 | |||
| '''[[vaqei#Zjenav|vaqei]]''' | |||
| because | |||
|- | |||
! 069 | |||
| '''[[tjugwen#Zjenav|tjugwen]]''' | |||
| tail | |||
! 138 | |||
| '''[[djemei#Zjenav|djemei]]''' | |||
| to sew | |||
! 207 | |||
| '''[[lazj#Zjenav|lazj]]''' | |||
| name | |||
|} |
Latest revision as of 15:40, 22 March 2024
Zjenav is a language created by BenJamin P. Johnson in 2020 for Luca-Fabio Di Franco to be used in an upcoming novel series.
Phonology
Vowels
There are five vowels and eight diphthongs. Vowels do not have phonemic length. In some dialects, some diphthongs may be merged, and/or rising diphthongs may become falling.
Simple Vowels | Diphthongs | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Front | Back | Front | Back | |||
High | i /i/ |
u /u/ |
High-to-High | ui /ui/ [uɪ̯] |
iu /iu/ [iʊ̯] | |
Mid | o /o/ |
Mid-to-High | ei /ei/ [ɛɪ̯] |
oi /oi/ [ɔɪ̯] | ||
e /ɛ/ |
Low-to-High | ai /ai/ [ɑɪ̯] |
au /au/ [ɑʊ̯] | |||
Low | a /ɑ/ [ä~ɑ] |
Low-to-Mid | ae /ae/ [ɑɛ̯] |
ao /ao/ [ɑɔ̯] |
Consonants
The consonants of Zjenav are notable for having robust set of unvoiced sonorants.
(These labels are approximate, and are used to reflect the grouping of the consonants according to the Zjenavi writing system rather than the exact place and manner of articulation in a more expansive IPA consonant chart. When in doubt, refer to the IPA values rather than these rough rows and columns.)
Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive | p · b /p · b/ |
t · d /t · d/ |
k · g /k · g/ |
q · /q/ | |
Affricate | tj · dj /t͡ʃ · d͡ʒ/ |
||||
Fricative | f · v /f · v/ |
s · z /s· z/ |
sj · zj /ʃ · ʒ/ |
h · /h/ [h~x] | |
Nasal | hm · m /m̥ · m/ |
hn · n /n̥ · n/ |
|||
Approximant | · w /w/ |
hr · r /r̥ · r/ [ɾ̥~r̥ · ɾ~r] |
· y /j/ |
hl · l /l̥ · l/ [l̥~ɫ̥ · l~ɫ] |
Phonotactics
Onsets
Onsets are not required (i.e. a word can start with a consonant or a vowel); however, valid word-initial onsets are:
- Any single (phonemic) consonant: p, b, t, d, k, g, q, tj, dj, f, v, s, z, sj, zj, h, y, w, l, hl, r, hr, n, hn, m, hm
- Stop consonants may be followed by /r/: pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, qr
- Other valid word-initial clusters are: ql, kw, gw, qw, st
Medial (Intervocalic) Clusters
Two (non-diphthong) vowels must be separated by at least one consonant. Medial clusters of consonants occurring between two vowels may consist of:
- Any single (phonemic) consonant: p, b, t, d, k, g, q, tj, dj, f, v, s, z, sj, zj, h, y, w, l, hl, r, hr, n, hn, m, hm
- Any stop followed by w, r, or l: pw, bw, tw, dw, kw, gw, qw, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, qr, pl, bl, tl, dl, kl, gl, ql
- Some geminates: tt, kk, qq, ll, rr, mm, nn
- Other valid clusters: vr, ft, st, ht, sr, sl, hp, hk, sp, sk, sq, qs, ks, ts, ps, ksj, mz, nz, mbr, ndr, ngr, mb, mp, nd, nt, ng, nk, nq, ndj, ntj, nkw, ngw, nqw, mpr, ntr, nkr, nqr, ms, ns, nks, nqs, mq, mqr, rn, rm, ml, mr, lm, ln, nr, nl, lp, lt, lk, lb, ld, lg, lv, lf, lz, ls, lsj, rp, rt, rk, rb, rd, rg, rv, rf, rz, rs, rsj
Codae
A coda is not required.
- Any single phoneme can act as a coda with the exception of y and w: p, b, t, d, k, g, q, tj, dj, f, v, s, z, sj, zj, h, l, hl, r, hr, n, hn, m, hm
- Clusters which can act as a coda are: ft, st, ht, ks, qs, mp, nt, nk, nq
Zjenav is most commonly written in an impure abjad (that is, an alphabet, but the vowels are written as diacritic marks above or below the consonants, depending on the positioning of any ascenders or descenders which may obstruct their positioning). There is also a “placeholder” consonant for vowels which occur at the beginning of words (left).
Consonants
The consonants are divided into types according to their place of articulation (where in the mouth each consonant is produced). These align roughly with the columns of the consonant table at the beginning of the phonology section, and consist of: labial, coronal, palatal, and dorsal (the last being a combination of the sparsely populated velar and uvular columns). There are also three types of consonant ligatures; that is, two consonants which are joined together to form a new letter when written together.
Consonant Group I: Labial
p | b | f | v | m | hm | w |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consonant Group II: Coronal
t | d | s | z | n | hn | r | hr |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consonant Group III: Palatal
tj | dj | sj | zj | y |
---|---|---|---|---|
Consonant Group IV: Dorsal
k | g | l | hl | q | h | ’ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ligature Group I: Combinations with ⟨r⟩
pr | br | tr | dr | kr | gr | qr |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ligature Group II: Combinations with ⟨w⟩
pw | bw | tw | dw | kw | gw | qw |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ligature Group III: Other Ligatures
ql |
---|
Vowels
Vowels are written as marks above or below the consonant that precedes them. In all there are five vowels and eight diphthongs, but they are all written as diacritics, for a total of thirteen possible vowels.
a | ae | ai | ao | au | e | ei |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
i | iu | o | oi | u | ui | |
By default, they are written above, but when a consonant has an ascender (a line which rises upward and encroaches on the space where the vowel should be placed), the vowel is placed below the consonant and flipped, so that the vowel maintains the same orientation toward its consonant “base.” (Wider consonants, like ⟨hm⟩, with sufficient room for ascenders may still have vowels above.)
Four consonants – ⟨s⟩, ⟨z⟩, ⟨sj⟩, and ⟨zj⟩ – have both ascenders and descenders. Vowels are placed above these characters. In some cases, the vowel markings may be turned or modified in order to fit properly. Finally ⟨h⟩ is a solid line with no room to put a vowel either above or below, so a special variant character is used and the vowel is placed above.
Orthography (Romanization)
IPA | Description | Example | IPA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
’ | - | Used as a placeholder for vowels in initial position and in certain other environments. Not transcribed in Romanization. | |||
a | /ɑ/ | as in father. | aqeh ‘child’ | [ɑˈqɛh] | |
ae | /ɑɛ̯/ | like ⟨a⟩ in father followed by ⟨e⟩ in egg. (In some dialects, ⟨ae⟩ is pronounced in the same manner as ⟨ai⟩, below.) | aegazjil ‘start’ | [ˈɑɛ̯ɡɑʒil] | |
ai | /ɑɪ̯/ | like ⟨i⟩ in find. | zjai ‘who’ | [ʒɑɪ̯] | |
ao | /ɑɔ̯/ | like ⟨a⟩ in father followed by ⟨aw⟩ in awful. (In some dialects, ⟨ao⟩ is pronounced in the same manner as ⟨au⟩, below.) | nuqaor ‘seventh’ | [nuˈqɑɔ̯r] | |
au | /ɑʊ̯/ | like ⟨ou⟩ in house. | qau ‘me’ | [qɑʊ̯] | |
b | /b/ | as in boy. | bare ‘to go’ | [ˈbɑrɛ] | |
br | /br/ | like ⟨br⟩ in bring. | brezj ‘voice’ | [brɛʒ] | |
bw | /bw/ | like ⟨bu⟩ in Spanish bueno. | rabwa ‘pool’ | [ˈrɑ.bwɑ] | |
d | /d/ | as in dog. | dulam ‘warm’ | [duˈlɑm] | |
dj | /ʤ/ | like ⟨j⟩ in joke. | djalisj ‘green’ | [ʤɑˈliʃ] | |
dr | /dr/ | like ⟨dr⟩ in dragon. | drimasj ‘honey’ | [driˈmɑʃ] | |
dw | /dw/ | like ⟨dw⟩ in dwell. | laedwohn ‘twilight’ | [lɑɛ̯ˈdwon̥] | |
e | /ɛ/ | as in excel. | eqeh ‘again’ | [ɛˈqɛh] | |
ei | /eɪ̯/ | like ⟨a⟩ in face. | eisj ‘under’ | [eɪ̯ʃ] | |
f | /f/ | as in five. | fenav ‘flower’ | [fɛˈnɑv] | |
g | /ɡ/ | as in get (never as in gel). | garasa ‘brother’ | [ɡɑˈrɑsɑ] | |
gr | /ɡr/ | like ⟨gr⟩ in grand. | grisjar ‘mountain’ | [ɡriˈʃɑr] | |
gw | /ɡw/ | like ⟨gu⟩ in guava. | gwammah ‘wide’ | [ˈɡwɑmːɑh] | |
h | /h/ | as in hand. | hasjan ‘sun’ | [hɑˈʃɑn] | |
hl | /l̥/ | as in Icelandic hlaða. | hleti ‘to yell’ | [ˈl̥ɛti] | |
hm | /m̥/ | like ⟨mh⟩ in Welsh fy mhen. | zjohma ‘to turn’ | [ˈʒom̥ɑ] | |
hn | /n̥/ | as in Icelandic hnjóta. | hnivel ‘odd’ | [n̥iˈvɛl] | |
hr | /r̥/ | like ⟨rh⟩ in Welsh Rhian. | hrasev ‘short’ | [r̥ɑˈsɛv] | |
i | /i/ | as in machine, or like ⟨ee⟩ in seen. | ihoihih ‘moth’ | [iˈhoɪ̯hih] | |
iu | /iʊ̯/ | like ⟨ew⟩ in few. | liutok ‘nocturnal’ | [ˈliʊ̯.tok] | |
- | j | - | only used in Romanization the combinations ⟨dj⟩, ⟨sj⟩, ⟨tj⟩, and ⟨zj⟩. | - | - |
k | /k/ | as in keep. | kazjur ‘always’ | [kɑˈʒur] | |
kr | /kr/ | like ⟨cr⟩ in cringe. | kruig ‘wood’ | [ˈkruɪ̯ɡ] | |
kw | /kw/ | like ⟨qu⟩ in quick. | kwahro ‘wall’ | [ˈkwa.r̥o] | |
l | /l/ | as in like. | lazj ‘name’ | [lɑʒ] | |
m | /m/ | as in man. | maqa ‘to hit’ | [ˈmɑqɑ] | |
n | /n/ | as in now. | nuqa ‘seven’ | [ˈnuqɑ] | |
o | /o/ | like in go. | onahlu ‘to fly’ | [oˈnɑl̥u] | |
oi | /ɔi̯/ | like ⟨oi⟩ in oil. | qoiqoi ‘friend’ | [qoɪ̯ˈqoɪ̯] | |
p | /p/ | as in pen. | peisja ‘to buy’ | [ˈpɛɪ̯ʃɑ] | |
pr | /pr/ | like ⟨pr⟩ in prize. | prehna ‘to pull’ | [ˈprɛ.n̥ɑ] | |
pw | /pw/ | like ⟨po⟩ in French poisson. | tapweh ‘week’ | [tɑpˈwɛh] | |
q | /q/ | as in Hebrew qoph. (Like ⟨k⟩, but more guttural.) | qaevov ‘energy’ | [ˈqɑɛ̯.vov] | |
ql | /ql/ | like ⟨cl⟩ in clash, but more guttural. | qludji ‘to write’ | [ˈqlu.ʤi] | |
qr | /qr/ | like ⟨cr⟩ in crash, but more guttural. | qraqei ‘for no reason’ | [qrɑˈqɛɪ̯] | |
qw | /qw/ | like ⟨qu⟩ in quite, but more guttural. | qwekeru ‘twenty’ | [qwɛˈkɛ.ru] | |
r | /r/ | tapped or trilled as in Italian or Spanish caro. | ravaoq ‘wet’ | [rɑˈvɑɔ̯q] | |
s | /s/ | as in song (never as in days). | suzje ‘wind’ | [ˈsuʒɛ] | |
sj | /ʃ/ | like ⟨sh⟩ in show. | sjikah ‘sand’ | [ʃiˈkɑh] | |
t | /t/ | as in take. | taklo ‘cup’ | [ˈtɑklo] | |
tj | /ʧ/ | like ⟨ch⟩ in chair. | tjari ‘hundred’ | [ˈʧɑri] | |
tr | /tr/ | like in tree. | traqo ‘near’ | [ˈtr̥ɑ.qo] | |
tw | /tw/ | as in twist. | vetwe ‘to kiss’ | [ˈvɛ.twɛ] | |
u | /u/ | like ⟨oo⟩ in soon. | ugme ‘fire’ | [ˈuɡmɛ] | |
ui | /uɪ̯/ | like ⟨uoy⟩ in buoy. | kruiguil ‘wooden’ | [ˈkruɪ̯.ɡuɪ̯l] | |
v | /v/ | as in very. | vesj ‘thus’ | [vɛʃ] | |
w | /w/ | as in want. | rabwa ‘pool’ | [ˈrɑbwɑ] | |
y | /j/ | as in yell. | zjuyazi ‘goat’ | [ʒuˈjɑzi] | |
z | /z/ | as in zoo. | zaqei ‘why’ | [zɑˈqɛɪ̯] | |
zj | /ʒ/ | like ⟨s⟩ in vision, or like ⟨j⟩ in French jamais. | zjaran ‘road’ | [ʒɑˈrɑn] |
Alignments
Typology
The typology of Zjenav is predominantly SVO (subject-verb-object). The positions of subject and object may shift depending on topicality or markedness.
Morphosyntactic Alignment
Zjenav has nominative-accusative alignment, which means that nouns and pronouns are differentiated for subject and object roles.
Headedness
The Zjenav language is predominantly head-final (“right-branching”).
Noun Phrases
Prepositions and determiners precede the noun in noun phrases. Adjectives, numerals, genitive constructions, and relative clauses all follow the noun, in that specific order (preposition—(determiner)—NOUN—adjective (phrase)—numeral—relative clause). Genitive, dative, benefactive, and instrumental phrases may appear anywhere in the clause, though they tend to follow the main noun except in marked speech.
For example, the phrase “with those three thin men from Zakalasrava who stole my book” would be assembled in the order:
…dum zjesrahom dehla djat Zakalasravan zjai kotresju la butjat qane.
dum | zjesrah-om | dehla | djat | Zakalasrava-an | zj-ai | kotresji-iu la | butjat-∅ | qa-ne |
with | man-dat.pl | thin | three | Zakalasrava-gen | rel3.ani | steal-3pl pst | book-acc | 1sg-gen |
with | men | thin | three | from Zakalasrava | who | stole | book | my |
‘…with those three thin men from Zakalasrava who stole my book.’
Adjective Phrases
In adjective phrases, (adverbial) measurements of degree (very, so, too, &c.) always precede the adjective.
t-ai | zji | moiqat | gim-esj | kezj |
that-ani | cop | dog | far-adv | good |
that | is | dog | very | good |
‘That is a very good dog.’
Numbers
Cardinal Numbers
The Zjenavi numbers are in an octal system. For your convenience, numbers in the shaded columns are decimal.
Digits | Teens | Twenties | Multiples | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ha | 1 | 1 | kehru si ha | 11 | 9 | qwekeru si ha | 21 | 17 | kehru | 10 | 8 | |||
qwe | 2 | 2 | kehru si qwe | 12 | 10 | qwekeru si qwe | 22 | 18 | qwekeru | 20 | 16 | |||
djat | 3 | 3 | kehru si djat | 13 | 11 | qwekeru si djat | 23 | 19 | djakeru | 30 | 24 | |||
zjequ | 4 | 4 | kehru si zjequ | 14 | 12 | qwekeru si zjequ | 24 | 20 | zjekeru | 40 | 32 | |||
uvuh | 5 | 5 | kehru si uvuh | 15 | 13 | qwekeru si uvuh | 25 | 21 | uvuhru | 50 | 40 | |||
alase | 6 | 6 | kehru si alase | 16 | 14 | qwekeru si alase | 26 | 22 | alasehru | 60 | 48 | |||
nuqa | 7 | 7 | kehru si nuqa | 17 | 15 | qwekeru si nuqa | 27 | 23 | nuqeru | 70 | 56 | |||
kehru | 10 | 8 | qwekeru | 20 | 16 | djakeru | 30 | 24 | tjari | 100 | 64 |
Exponents | ||
---|---|---|
kehru | 10 | 8 |
kehru si zjequ | 12 | 10 |
tjari | 100 | 64 |
tjari ha zjekeru si zjequ | 144 | 100 |
sjallov | 1,000 | 512 |
sjallov ha tjari nuqa si uvuhru | 1,750 | 1,000 |
tjakedi | 1,000,000 | 262,144 |
tjakedi djat si sjallov tjari alase zjekeru ha si tjari ha | 3,641,100 | 1,000,000 |
Ordinals and Compounds
Compounds are created by simply stacking up the numbers from largest to smallest, with the last number separated by the conjunction si (‘and’). E.g. ‘47’ = zjekeru ‘40’ + si ‘and’ + nuqa ‘7’ → zjekeru si nuqa. ‘625’ = alase tjari ‘600’ + qwekeru ‘20’ + si ‘and’ + uvuh ‘5’ → alase tjari qwekeru si uvuh.
Most ordinal numbers are formed by adding the suffix -aor to the number, e.g. djataor ‘third’, uvuhaor ‘fifth’. Where a numeral ends in a vowel, the vowel is usually deleted, as in alasaor ‘sixth’ from alase; however, when a numeral ends in –u, the –ao– of the suffix is deleted instead, as in zjequr from zjequ. When –r– occurs in the last syllable of a number, the –r of the suffix changes to –l, as in kehru + -aor → kehrul and tjari + -aor → tjaraol. The ordinals for ‘one’ and ‘two’ are as irregular as “first” and “second” – they mean ‘closest to the front’ and ‘the following’, respectively.
Ordinal Numbers | |||
---|---|---|---|
1st | sjamasj | 10th | kehrul |
2nd | sjolpet | 20th | qwekerul |
3rd | djataor | 30th | djakerul |
4th | zjequr | 40th | zjekerul |
5th | uvuhaor | 50th | uvuhrul |
6th | alasaor | 60th | alasehrul |
7th | nuqaor | 70th | nuqerul |
10th | kehrul | 100th | tjaraol |
Determiners
Zjenav has no definite or indefinite articles. Other demonstratives or determiners may be used optionally, as necessary.
Note: Determiners do not inflect for case when used as adjectives; however, when they are used on their own (i.e. without an accompanying noun) they are considered pronouns and do inflect. See Adjectives for more information about inflection.
Demonstratives (‘this’, ‘that’ )
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Proximal ‘this’, ‘these’ |
vai | vae | vai | voq | voqu | voqat |
Distal ‘that’, ‘those’ |
tai | tae | tai | toq | toqu | toqat |
Relative and Interrogative Particles
Zjenav makes a distinction which does not exist in English between interrogative and relative determiners, correlatives, and pronouns. In English, words like who, when, where, why, and how (but not what) are used as interrogatives to form a question — such as “When did he arrive?” or “Who are you?” — as well as relatives to form subordinate clauses, such as “That’s when he arrived,” or “That’s the person who arrived.” In Zjenav, interrogatives all begin with ⟨z⟩ while their relative counterparts begin with ⟨zj⟩:
- Interrogative: Rah djaikaet la zem? ‘When did he arrive?’
- Interrogative: Asj zji zai? ‘Who are you?’
- Relative: Toq zji zjem rah djaikaet la. ‘That’s when he arrived.’
- Relative: Tai zji zjeser zjai djaikaet. ‘That’s the person who arrived.’
Also note that interrogatives are predicative, so they normally follow the verb. E.g. instead of saying “who are you?” you would say, “you are who?” (Asj zji zai?)
These “correlative” roots can be used in combination with other determiners to form additional adverbs and pronouns:
Person | Thing | Time | Place | Manner | Amount | Reason | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Interrogative | zai ‘who’ |
zoq ‘what’ |
zem ‘when’ |
zul ‘where’ |
zesj ‘how’ |
zazoh ‘how much’ |
zaqei ‘why’ |
Relative | zjai ‘who’ |
zjoq ‘that’ |
zjem ‘when’ |
zjul ‘where’ |
zjesj ‘how’ |
zjazoh ‘how much’ |
zjaqei ‘why’ |
Proximal | vai ‘this one’ |
voq ‘this’ |
vem ‘now’ |
vul ‘here’ |
vesj ‘like this’ |
vazoh ‘this much’ |
vaqei ‘because’ |
Distal | tai ‘that one’ |
toq ‘that’ |
tem ‘then’ |
tul ‘there’ |
tesj ‘thus’ |
tazoh ‘that much’ |
taqei ‘therefore’ |
Negative | qrai ‘no one’ |
qroq ‘nothing’ |
qrem ‘never’ |
qrul ‘nowhere’ |
qresj ‘no way’ |
qrazoh ‘none’ |
qraqei ‘no reason’ |
Substantives
Nouns
Noun Classes
Though I refer to them throughout this text as “noun classes,” that is an insufficient descriptor, as these classes also have implications for pronouns and verbs. There are three overlapping types of noun classes in Zjenav: Animacy, Sanctity, and Sex.
Animacy
Zjenav’s primary noun (and pronoun) class system is one of animacy. This is simply the dividing of nouns into categories of animate and inanimate. This division is fairly intuitive: If it is alive, it is animate; otherwise, it is inanimate. There are, however, some exceptions and nuances. Many nouns we might think of as inanimate may be considered animate to the Rahavahi, particularly those which have certain spiritual significance or independent movement. Some examples of nouns which may be unexpectedly animate in Zjenav are: ugme ‘fire’, suzje ‘wind’, emposjer ‘alcohol’, zjoran ‘the sea, rehazj ‘the moon’, laedwohn ‘twilight’, nivul ‘river’, hasjan ‘the sun’, isjil ‘star’, and dimma ‘smoke’.
Conversely, some nouns which we might think of as alive are considered inanimate in Zjenav if they are a specific part of a larger animate system; for example: body parts (ellavu ‘arm’, zuhluzj ‘head’, zaqsun ‘finger’) or parts of plants (nazu ‘fruit’, djendra ‘leaf’, asrolu ‘stem’, ravu ‘root’, &c.)
Other normally inanimate nouns may be used in an animate sense for emphasis in poetic language or rhetoric, such as djindre ‘melody’ if it is particularly lively or moving, or zivesj ‘light’ to describe certain intense shades or colours.
There is a small subset of nouns which can be either animate or inanimate depending on their use. Herbs, spices, and harvested plants are animate while growing or in “plant form,” but inanimate when dried, prepared, harvested, or otherwise being used as food.
Third person pronouns (both singular and plural) have a firm distinction between animate and inanimate, and the third person singular even maintains a separate conjugation pattern in verbs. (The third person plural conjugation is the same for both animate and inanimate.)
Sanctity
Zjenav has a secondary class system which is only marked on certain words which have taboo or reverent qualities to the Rahavahi. As a class, sanctity may be applied to either animate or inanimate nouns. There is no pronominal or verbal reflection of sanctity in standard speech. (Verbs may only be made “sacred” or “cursed” in some highly stylized or religious language, such as prayers or spells.)
Sanctity is shown by altering the consonants in a word to all be voiced, in the case of sacred objects, or unvoiced, in the case of cursed ones. This likely began as part of a practice of whispering the names of taboo objects. Indeed, many cursed words may still be whispered (their vowels also devoiced).
Cursed | Original | Sacred |
---|---|---|
p | ← p → | b |
t | ← t → | d |
tj | ← tj → | dj |
k | ← k → | g |
p | ← b → | b |
t | ← d → | d |
tj | ← dj → | dj |
k | ← g → | g |
f | ← f → | v |
f | ← v → | v |
s | ← s → | z |
s | ← z → | z |
sj | ← sj → | zj |
sj | ← zj→ | zj |
hl | ← l → | l |
hr | ← r → | r |
hm | ← m → | m |
hn | ← n → | n |
hl | ← hl → | l |
hr | ← hr → | r |
hm | ← hm → | m |
hn | ← hn → | n |
In other words, in sacred nouns, the letters p, t, tj, k, f, s, sj, hl, hr, hm, and hn become, respectively, b, d, dj, g, z, zj, l, r, m, and n. Conversely, in cursed nouns, b, d, dj, g, z, zj, l, r, m, and n become p, t, tj, k, f, s, sj, hl, hr, hm, and hn. Having no voicing equivalents, the consonants q, h, y, and w are unaffected.
In the event that a voicing change leads to an illegal cluster (e.g. unvoiced sonorants cannot form clusters), e is added to break up the cluster, e.g. ugme ‘fire’ → ukhme → ukehme ‘cursed fire’.
Obviously, many nouns – especially shorter words – may contain exclusively voiced or unvoiced consonants. In this case, affixes serve to add sanctity distinction to a noun.
The prefix bara- makes a noun with no unvoiced consonants sacred. When affixed before a vowel, the final a is elided: bar-. When using bara- with a noun that is explicitly marked as feminine with a prefix, the suffix -bara should be used instead.
The suffix -eqla makes a noun cursed which is devoid of voiced consonants. When affixed after a vowel, the initial e is elided: -qla. When using -eqla with a noun that is explicitly marked as masculine by another suffix, the prefix qla- should be used instead.
E.g. ugme ‘fire’ → barugme ‘sacred fire’; aqeh ‘child’ → baraqeh ‘holy child’, → aqeheqla ‘cursed child’.
While it is tempting to combine affixes with voicing to hyperbolize a noun’s sanctity, this should be avoided. To do so is, itself, a cursed practice.
Sex
Finally Zjenav has a third system of dividing substantives up into groups according to biological sex. (I hesitate to use the word “gender” here, because that has complicated connotations biologically, culturally, and linguistically, and those nuances are not helpful in this context.) In pronouns, this exists exclusively as a male/female division of the third person singular (i.e. rah ‘he’ vs. rei ‘she’). In nouns, sex is only indicated in animate nouns, and only on those terms where a neutral base term requires elaboration. Nouns marked explicitly as masculine take a suffix, while feminine nouns take the same marking as a prefix. E.g. aqeh ‘child’ → aqehu ‘boy’, uhaqeh ‘girl’; zjeser ‘person’ → zjesrah ‘man’, azjeser ‘woman’. The vowel of the suffix may change in some words, but the masculine and feminine vowels always match. Most commonly they are:
Feminine | Masculine | |
---|---|---|
ha- (ah- before a vowel) | ↔ | -ah (-ha after a vowel) |
hu- (uh- before a vowel) | ↔ | -uh (-hu after a vowel) |
he- (eh- before a vowel) | ↔ | -eh (-he after a vowel) |
(Grammatical) Number
Nouns may be singular, plural, or in some cases dual. The dual number is somewhat rarer than the singular or plural, and may have a different connotation than just “two” of the singular. For example, paksa ‘eye’, paksu ‘pair of eyes’ (but not just any two eyes; the eyes of a single person or creature; eyes that belong together); maht ‘door’, but mahtu doesn’t just mean ‘two doors’; it refers to a double-door or double-hung gate like a French door or saloon gate. To refer to two unrelated eyes, doors, or other nouns, use the plural. For example, there is a great difference between saying Baresh ra maht qwe ‘Go through two doors’ and Baresj ra mahtu ‘Go through the double-doors’.
When a whole number is used to modify a noun, the noun remains in the default/singular form unless a case is explicitly called out. (E.g. maht kehru ‘eight gate(s)’, but mahtasj kehru ‘from/of eight gates’)
Cases
Nouns and pronouns inflect for number (singular, dual, and plural), animacy (animate and inanimate) and case (nominative, genitive, dative, benefactive, instrumental, accusative, and vocative). Pronouns also inflect for sex (masculine and feminine), and some nouns may have gendered affixes.
Generally, prepositions are followed by the accusative case, though if there is movement involved in a locative-type preposition (e.g. the difference between “in” and “into”), the dative case is used instead. Note that this is the opposite of what happens in some Germanic languages like German or Icelandic, where this situation is handled by the accusative! The dative is the only case other than the nominative which can be used after a preposition.
Subject (“Nominative”)
By default all nouns are presented in the nominative (or subject) case. This is the most basic “dictionary form” of the word; the form which you will look up in the lexicon. The subject of every clause is nominative, as are copular predicates.
qa | zji | zjeser |
1sg.nom | cop | person.nom |
I | am | human |
‘I am a human.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate | -∅ | -uq | -i |
Inanimate | -∅ | -u | -(j)at |
The inanimate plural takes –jat after roots ending in s, z, t, and d, changing them into a palatal (sj, zj, tj, or dj, respectively). Otherwise the inanimate plural is –at.
Some examples:
- zjeser ‘person’ (animate): zjeser, zjesruq, zjesri
- isjil ‘star’ (animate): isjil, isjiluq, isjili
- maht ‘gate’ (inanimate): maht, mahtu, mahtjat
- lazj ‘name’ (inanimate): lazj, lazju, lazjat
Possessive/“of”-phrases (“Genitive”)
The genitive translates two concepts in English: phrases using the preposition ‘of’, and nouns taking the possessive clitic ‘’s’.
Nizjan garasane qane guqot la zaka.
Nizjan-∅ | garasa-ane | qa-ane | guqo-et la | zaka-∅ |
wife-nom | brother-gen | 1sg-gen | take3sg.anim pst | stone-acc |
Wife | of-brother | of-me | took | stone |
‘My brother’s wife took the stone.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate | -ane | -aze | -ezj |
Inanimate | -an | -uz | -asj |
When a root ends in a vowel, like sjulpe, the vowel is deleted when a case ending is added.
Some examples:
- sehkov ‘father’ (animate): sehkovane, sehkovaze, sehkovezj
- nizjan ‘wife’ (animate): nizjanane, nizjanaze, nizjanezj
- sjeimaq ‘road’ (inanimate): sjeimaqan, sjeimaquz, sjeimaqasj
- sjulpe ‘horn’ (inanimate): sjulpan, sjulpuz, sjulpasj
Direct Object (“Accusative”)
The accusative is the direct object of a clause: It is whatever noun (or pronoun) is being affected by the verb.
asj | nokwa-e | qulug-∅ |
2sg.nom | hold-2sg | rope-acc |
you | hold | rope |
‘You are holding the rope.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate | -u | -um | -im |
Inanimate | -∅ | -u | -(j)isj |
Some examples:
- nivul ‘river’ (animate): nivulu, nivulum, nivulim
- aqeh ‘child’ (animate): aqehu, aqehum, aqehim
- zaka ‘stone’ (inanimate): zaka, zaku, zakisj
- nadjad ‘day’ (inanimate): nadjad, nadjadu, nadjadjisj
Indirect Object/“to”-phrases (“Dative”)
The dative can translate various types of phrases in English. Most importantly, it translates indirect objects, which may or may not be packaged with the preposition “to,” (e.g. “Give the book to me” or “Give me the book.”) It is also used with most prepositions which indicate movement, such as “onto the table,” “into the village,” “under the fridge,” &c. (If you’re familiar with the dative in languages such as German or Russian, note that this is the opposite of what happens with prepositions involving motion in those languages.) See Adpositions for more information on prepositions taking the dative case.
Basrisj qote butjat. Huzji ek ur djaskote qane.
basri-sj | qa-ote | butjat-∅ | huzji | ek-∅ | ur | djasko-ote | qa-ane |
give-imp | 1sg-dat | book-acc | put.imp | 4sg.inan-acc | into | hand-dat | 1sg-gen |
give | to me | book | put | it | into | hand | of me |
‘Give me the book. Put it in my hand.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate | -ote | -oyal | -om |
Inanimate | -at | -ut | -om |
Some examples:
- mahkis ‘fish’ (animate): mahkisote, mahkisoyal, mahkisom
- ugme ‘fire’ (animate): ugmote, ugmoyal, ugmom
- lezasj ‘cloud’ (inanimate): lezasjat, lezasjut, lezasjom
- djasko ‘hand’ (inanimate): djaskat, djaskut, djaskom
“For”-phrases (“Benefactive”)
The benefactive case has two main uses when translating from English: Phrases with the preposition “for,” as in “this is a present for you” and “for the purpose of” or “in order to.” In the latter case, English normally uses a verb (e.g. “in order to read the book,” but in Zjenav a benefactive verbal noun is used instead (“reading-ben the book.”) In some cases the benefactive may be translated as “because of” or “thanks to.”
qa | ra | viluvi-i | rah-ya |
1sg.nom | fut | speak-1sg | 3sg.masc-ben |
I | will | speak | for-him |
‘I will speak on his behalf.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate | -iya | -al | -iyasj |
Inanimate | -iya / -ja | -uya | -iyasj |
Some examples:
- kweru ‘tree’ (animate): kweriya, kweral, kweriyasj
- mahkov ‘mother’ (animate): mahkoviya, mahkoval, mahkoviyasj
- grisjar ‘mountain’ (inanimate): grisjariya, grisjaruya, grisjariyasj
- kwemqe ‘stick’ (inanimate): kwemqiya, kwemquya, kwemqiyasj
“With/by”-phrases (“Instrumental”)
The instrumental case translates the preposition “with” in English, but not all senses of it! The most common sense of “with” is equivalent to “accompanying” or “together,” which is rendered with the preposition dum and a noun or pronoun in the dative. The instrumental translates “with” in a sense of “using” or “by means/way of,” (e.g. “with a hammer” or “by way of the park”). The instrumental is often used to derive adverbs and adjectives from nouns, such as sjulpurat ‘with two horns’ → ‘horned’ from sjulpe ‘horn’.
Qai qludjiqa la butjatisj djaskor.
qai | qludji-qa | la | butjat-isj | djasko-or |
1pl.nom | write-1pl | pst | book-acc.pl | hand-ist |
We | write | did | books | by-hand |
‘We wrote the books by hand.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate | -or | -or | -arat |
Inanimate | -ara | -urat | -oyarat |
Some examples:
- bizju ‘tutelary deity’ (animate): bizjor, bizjor, bizjarat
- fenav ‘flower’ (animate): fenavor, fenavor, fenavarat
- esjit ‘bone’ (inanimate): esjitara, esjiturat, esjitoyarat
- muhla ‘leg’ (inanimate): muhlara, muhlurat, muhloyarat
Direct Address (“Vocative”)
Finally the Vocative case is simply the case you would use to refer to someone by name. Only the second person pronouns (asj and asji) have a vocative inflection.
’Sja aqeha Zehra la’ shane zji zjoq resj djayesj vul.
(a)sj-a | aqehu-a | Zehru-a | lazj asj-ane | zji | zjoq | djaya-e-sj | v-ul |
2sg-voc | boy-voc | Zehru-voc | name 2sg-gen | cop | what.rel ever | come-2sg-imp | prox-loc |
You | boy | Zehru | name of-you | is | what-ever | come | here |
‘You, boy, Zehru, whatever your name is, come here.’
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Animate[1] | -a | -uq | -in |
Pronoun | asja | asjuqwe | asjin |
Some examples:
- Azahn ‘Azahn’ (name): Azahna, Azahnuq, Azahnin
- Rahavah ‘Rahavah’ (animate): Rahavaha, Rahavahuq, Rahavahin
- rehazj ‘moon’ (animate): rehazja, rehazjuq, rehazjin
Pronouns
Pronouns are declined for case and number. The third (and fourth) person is also declined for animacy and sex.
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Ben. | Ist. | Acc. | Voc. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1sg. | qa I |
qane of me, my |
qote to me |
qaya for me |
qaor through me |
qau me |
- |
2sg. | asj you |
(a)sjane of you, your |
(a)sjote to you |
(a)sjaya for you |
(a)sjor through you |
(a)sju you |
(a)sja hey, you! |
3sg.masc | rah he |
rahne of him, his |
rahote to him |
rahya for him |
rahor through him |
rahu him |
- |
3sg.fem | rei she |
reyane of her, her(s) |
reyote to her |
reya for her |
reyor through her |
reyu her |
- |
4sg[2] | ek it |
(e)kan of it, its |
(e)kat to it |
(e)kaya for it |
ekra through it |
ek it |
- |
1du | qae you & I |
qaeze of you & me |
qayom to you & me |
qael for you & me |
qayor via you & me |
qayum you & me |
- |
1pl | qai we (all) |
qaizj of us |
qayom to us |
qayasj for us |
qayarat through us |
qayim us |
- |
2sg. | (a)sji you (all) |
(a)sjizh of you, your |
(a)sjom to you |
(a)sjisj for you |
(a)sjarat through you |
(a)sjim you |
(a)sjin hey, you! |
3pl | rai they (anim.) |
raizj of them, their |
rayom to them |
rayasj for them |
rayarat through them |
rayim them |
- |
4pl | kat they (inan.) |
kayasj of those, their |
kayom to those |
kayasj for those |
kairat through those |
kaisj them |
- |
The initial a- of the second person singular and plural is optional in all forms except for the nominative singular. The third person singular (animate) pronouns are divided into masculine and feminine forms; they are merged in the plural (not unlike English ‘he’ vs. ‘she’, but the plural of both is ‘they’). The initial e- of the fourth person singular is optional in all forms except for the nominative, instrumental, and accusative. The first person dual is used exclusively for the inclusive (“you and I”); exclusive usage (“someone else and I”) defaults to the plural. The first person plural may be used for both inclusive and exclusive. Sometimes, colloquially, the first person dual may be used to refer inclusively to plural persons to emphasize inclusivity over number.
Adpositions
All adpositions in Zjenav precede the objects they modify, and are therefore prepositions. Grammatically, they are fairly straightforward, but it may be helpful to list some of the more common prepositions here and indicate what noun case should be expected when using them. Nearly all prepositions are followed by nouns in the accusative case, but there is an exception concerning locational prepositions and objects which are in motion, which are followed by the dative. This is analogous to the difference between the English prepositions in or on (stationary) and into or onto (in motion).
Prp | Meaning | Case |
---|---|---|
dum | with | accusative |
ke | at, in (a place) | accusative |
qwa | by, beside, next to | dative (moving), accusative (stationary) |
ur | in, into | dative (moving), accusative (stationary) |
um | on, onto | dative (moving), accusative (stationary) |
eisj | under | dative (moving), accusative (stationary) |
go | from | genitive |
kae | to, towards | accusative |
korei | without | accusative |
sjam | in front of | dative (moving), accusative (stationary) |
ra | through | dative (moving), accusative (stationary) |
Adjectives
Adjectives nearly always follow the noun they modify. Adjectives do not inflect for animacy, case, or number.
Predicative Adjectives
Some words that are classified as adjectives are more accurately verbal clauses which operate on a noun in the same manner as a basic adjective, and which are generally translated as adjectives, but their inflections are different because they are actually verbs. For example, sjenevet ‘reflective’ is actually the third person singular of the verb sjeneve ‘to reflect’, so ‘a reflective surface’ sazjan sjenevet would more accurately be translated as ‘a surface which reflects’. The plural, in turn, takes a verbal ending instead of an adjectival one: sazjanat sjeneviu ‘reflective surfaces’.
Phrasal Adjectives
Other words that are classified as adjectives are more accurately noun phrases which operate on another noun in the same manner as a basic adjective, and which are generally translated as adjectives, but their inflections are different because they are actually nouns inflected for a case such as the instrumental or genitive. For example, tepsahurat ‘winged’ is the dual instrumental of tepsah ‘wing’, so parunkwe tepsahurat might be translated as ‘winged bird’, but literally means bird with-a-pair-of-wings. Similarly, zjesrah korei kursjezjil ‘fearless man’ literally translates to ‘man without fear’.
Substantive Adjectives
Many adjectives can be used as nouns or names simply by declining them according to the appropriate cases where applicable, and accounting for animacy. For example: qlakise ‘cursed’ → qlakisei ‘the cursed ones/people’ → qlakiset ‘cursed objects’.
Adverbialisation
In order to form an adverb from an adjective, add the suffix -esj. E.g.:
Verbs
Verbs can be inflected to indicate past, present, and future tenses. Verbs are generally divided into five “classes” based on the vowel used in their endings (roughly analogous to the -er, -ir, and -re verbs of French, or the weak -jan, -ōn, -ān, and -nan verbs of early Germanic.) Most conjugations are fairly similar, but changing the thematic vowel causes slight changes to some of the endings.
The Copula
Zjenav is a “zero-copula” or “null-copula” language. This means that the most basic copula – which in English is the verb ‘be’ (including the inflections am, are, and is) in sentences like ‘That is a house’ or ‘I am a teacher’ – is eliminated from the language. However, it doesn’t completely pattern with other null-copula languages which do away with the verb in its entirety. Instead, the verb is replaced by the particle zji. Zji is not a verb (it is a particle or an adverb) and does not inflect for person or number, but replaces the copula in most instances.
In phrases where a locational copula is needed, the verb i is used, usually with a dative phrase. While i is more of a verb than zji, it isn’t so much a null-copula as a null-stem verb, consisting only of the verbal endings.
Conjugation
All verbs have a single type of conjugation. Pronouns and particles may (optionally) be contracted if a verb begins with a vowel. All verbs end in a vowel, and conjugation is based on the final vowel of the verb. The first person dual and plural have the same conjugation, as do the third and fourth person plural. The third and fourth person singular, however, often differ. In all there are ten conjugations based on the various vowel stems.
The Single-Vowel Stems
a-stem | e-stem | i-stem | o-stem | u-stem | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
maqa ‘to strike’ |
zjurve ‘to think’ |
lasi ‘to meet’ |
ligo ‘to push’ |
meiku ‘to lie’ | ||
1sg | qa | maq-a | zjurv-e | las-i | lig-o | meik-u |
2sg | asj | maq-e | zjurv-e | las-e | lig-e | meik-e |
3sg | rah, rei | maq-et | zjurv-et | las-et | lig-et | meik-et |
4sg | ek | maq-at | zjurv-et | las-it | lig-ot | meik-ut |
1du/pl | qae, qai | maq-aqa | zjurv-eqa | las-iqa | lig-oqa | meik-uqa |
2pl | asji | maq-asj | zjurv-esj | las-isj | lig-osj | meik-usj |
3/4pl | rai, kat | maq-iu | zjurv-iu | las-iu | lig-iu | meik-iu |
Verbs whose stems end in a palatalized consonant (sj, zj, tj, or dj) take the ending of –u for the third and fourth person plural instead of –iu. E.g. gadji ‘to have’ → rai gadju, not **gadjiu.
The Diphthong Stems
Verbs which end with a diphthong also have a slightly different conjugation based on the phonology of the language. Only five of the eight diphthongs are verb stems: -au, iu, and ui never occur at the end of a verb.
ae-stem | ai-stem | ao-stem | ei-stem | oi-stem | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
gurae ‘to sit’ |
djahai ‘to burn’ |
ponao ‘to stand’ |
vanei ‘to sing’ |
sjenoi ‘to flow’ | ||
1sg | qa | gur-ae | djah-ai | pon-ao | van-ei | sjen-oi |
2sg | asj | gur-ae | djah-ae | pon-ae | van-ei | sjen-oye |
3sg | rah, rei | gur-aet | djah-aet | pon-aet | van-eit | sjen-oyet |
4sg | ek | gur-aet | djah-ait | pon-aot | van-eit | sjen-oit |
1du/pl | qae, qai | gur-aeqa | djah-aiqa | pon-aoqa | van-eiqa | sjen-oiqa |
2pl | asji | gur-aesj | djah-aisj | pon-aosj | van-eisj | sjen-oisj |
3/4pl | rai, kat | gur-ayu | djah-ayu | pon-oyu | van-eyu | sjen-oyu |
Past and Future Tense
Past and future tense are formed with particles which do not affect the inflection. In the past tense, the verb is followed by the particle la, while in the future it is preceded by ra. (When a verb begins with a vowel, ra contracts to r’.) Tenses are illustrated here with the verb djaya ‘to come’:
Past | Present | Future | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | qa | djay-a la | djay-a | ra djay-a |
2sg | asj | djay-e la | djay-e | ra djay-e |
3sg | rah, rei | djay-et la | djay-et | ra djay-et |
4sg | ek | djay-at la | djay-at | ra djay-at |
1du/pl | qae, qai | djay-aqa la | djay-aqa | ra djay-aqa |
2pl | asji | djay-asj la | djay-asj | ra djay-asj |
3/4pl | rai, kat | djay-u la | djay-u | ra djay-u |
Negation
To form the negative, simply add the adverb qra ‘not’ before the verb. E.g.:
- Qa zjahlei barezjil. ‘I want to go.’ → Qa qra zjahlei barezjil. ‘I don’t want to go.’
- Qa desi ek. ‘I see it.’ → Qa qra desi ek. ‘I don’t see it.’
If the verb begins with a vowel, qra is shortened to qr’:
Imperative
To form the imperative in the singular, the second person singular conjugation is appended with –sj, though this may be elided after a verb with a palatal stem. In the plural, the imperative form is identical to the standard conjugation. E.g.:
- Asj djaye vul. ‘You come here.’ → Djayesj vul. ‘Come here.’
- Asji djayasj vul. ‘You all come here.’ → Djayasj vul. ‘(You all,) come here.’
Reflexive and Reciprocal Voices
Verbs may be shown to be reflexive or reciprocal by inserting the appropriate adverb below before the verb. In many Western languages, these are thought of as pronouns, and many languages treat them as such, though in Zjenav they are more appropriately considered adverbs, as their function is to alter the voice of the verb. (Note that only plural subjects can take a reciprocal adverb.)
Nom. | Refl. | Recip. | |
---|---|---|---|
1sg. | qa I |
qazj myself ourselves |
- |
1du. | qae you & I |
qazjet each other one another | |
1pl. | qai we (all) | ||
2sg. | asj you |
sjizj yourself yourselves |
- |
2pl. | (a)sji you (all) |
sjizjet each other one another | |
3sg.masc | rah he |
razj himself herself themselves |
- |
3sg.fem. | rei she | ||
3pl. | rai they (anim) |
razjet each other one another | |
4sg.[3] | ek it |
kesj itself themselves |
- |
4pl. | kat they (inan) |
kasjet each other one another |
Forming Questions
Polar Questions (“Yes-No” or “Boolean” Questions)
Polar questions are formed by adding the word hoqra before the verb or at the end of the sentence. E.g.:
- Asj viluve Zjenav. ‘You speak Zjenav.’ → Asj hoqra viluve Zjenav? ‘Do you speak Zjenav?’
- Rah kotresjet la neiyeri. ‘He stole the pearl.’ → Rah hoqra kotresjet la neiyeri? ‘Did he steal the pearl?’
When using the copula zji, simply replace the copula entirely with hoqra.
- Bala zji sjirrah. ‘The milk is spoiled’ → Bala hoqra sjirrah? ‘Is the milk spoiled?’
- Lazj reyane zji Zani. ‘Her name is Zani’ → Lazj reyane hoqra Zani? ‘Is her name Zani?’
Non-Polar Questions (“Wh-Questions” or “Special Questions”)
Non-polar questions are formed with “question words” such as those above. In most European languages, they tend to be placed at the beginning of an interrogative sentence, though in Zjenav they are a little more flexible. For example, “What is your name?” could be rendered as zoq zji lazj asjane? or lazj asjane zji zoq? with equal efficacy.
Derivation
Derivation from Nouns
N > A | -ok | Turns a noun into an adjective that is like the noun. |
N > A | -uil | Turns a noun into a compositional adjective. |
N > V | -izi | Turns a noun (or adjective) into a verb. |
Derivation from Verbs
V > A | -dji | Turns a verb into an adjectival past participle.
|
V > N | -zjil | A verbal infinitive can be used directly as an inanimate abstract noun.
|
V > N | -tih | Turns a verb into a tool used for the purpose of [verb]ing.
|
V > N | -mazj | Turns a verb into an (animate) agent who does the verb.
|
V > N | -atj | Turns a verb into an (inanimate) agent which does the verb. |
V > V | -kiuzji | Turns an intransitive verb into a transitive or causative verb.
|
Derivation from Adjectives
A > A-cmp | -asj | Makes an adjective comparative. |
A > A-sup | -asjit | Makes an adjective superlative.
|
A > Adv | -esj | Turns an adjective into an adverb. |
A > N | -in | Turns an adjective into a noun meaning ‘state of [adj]’. |
A > V | -(i)ni | Turns an adjective or preposition into a verb meaning ‘becoming [adj]’. |
A > V | -(i)zi | Turns an adjective (or noun) into a verb. |
Derivation from Numbers
# > A | -aor | Turns a cardinal number into an ordinal (adjective). Replaces a final vowel, but degrades to –ur after –u. Final –r transmutes to –l after a rhotic in the stem. |
Vocabulary
Swadesh List
For those of you who like this sort of thing!
Zjenav | English | Zjenav | English | Zjenav | English | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
001 | qa | I | 070 | kwolmon | feather | 139 | buraku | to count |
002 | asj | you | 071 | tosjoh | hair (on head) | 140 | zjaki | to say |
003 | rah, rei, ek | he, she, it | 072 | zuhluzj | head | 141 | vanei | to sing |
004 | qai, qae | we | 073 | polme | ear | 142 | davao | to play |
005 | asji | you | 074 | paksa | eye | 143 | desjoki | to float |
006 | rai, kat | they | 075 | muzju | nose | 144 | sjenoi | to flow |
007 | vai (anim), voq (inam) | this | 076 | qanuh | mouth | 145 | tjezi | to freeze |
008 | tai (anim), toq (inam) | that | 077 | demuzj | tooth | 146 | sjidani | to swell |
009 | vul | here | 078 | gwalto | tongue | 147 | hasjan | sun |
010 | tul | there | 079 | lahke | fingernail | 148 | rehazj | moon |
011 | zai | who | 080 | krub | foot | 149 | isjil | star |
012 | zoq | what | 081 | muhla | leg | 150 | rava | water |
013 | zul | where | 082 | djiran | knee | 151 | zahna | rain |
014 | zem | when | 083 | djasko | hand | 152 | nivul | river |
015 | zesj | how | 084 | tepsah | wing | 153 | aquva | lake |
016 | qra | not | 085 | ilkarav | belly, abdomen | 154 | zjoran | sea |
017 | halva | all | 086 | andjis | guts, entrails | 155 | raha | salt |
018 | bavozj | many | 087 | bren | neck | 156 | zaka | stone |
019 | hindazj | some | 088 | paksjah | back | 157 | sjikah | sand |
020 | tehno | few | 089 | sjulva | breast | 158 | dogul | dust |
021 | djehra | other | 090 | sangah | heart | 159 | gorul | earth, soil, dirt |
022 | ha | one | 091 | tjetur | liver | 160 | lezasj | cloud |
023 | qwe | two | 092 | hatje | to drink | 161 | pehla | fog, mist |
024 | djat | three | 093 | uqqu | to eat | 162 | aqwehma | sky |
025 | zjequ | four | 094 | pika | to bite | 163 | suzje | wind |
026 | uvuh | five | 095 | takwate | to suck | 164 | hisra | snow |
027 | nuzjat | big, large | 096 | stuqutji | to spit | 165 | sehlasj | ice |
028 | djezera | long | 097 | qwahnatu | to vomit | 166 | dimma | smoke |
029 | gwammah | wide, broad | 098 | hafasji | to blow | 167 | ugme | fire |
030 | gusle | thick | 099 | enahi | to breathe | 168 | ruhal | ash, ashes |
031 | tunnoh | heavy | 100 | hahlati | to laugh | 169 | djahai | burn |
032 | indja | small, little | 101 | desi | to see | 170 | sjanaq | path, road, trail |
033 | hrasev | short | 102 | apisko | to hear | 171 | grisjar | mountain |
034 | usjin | narrow | 103 | tjolahe | to know | 172 | nuikat | red |
035 | dehla | thin | 104 | zjurve | to think | 173 | djalisj | green |
036 | azjeser | woman | 105 | gwokuri | to smell | 174 | grozj | yellow |
037 | zjesrah | man | 106 | kursje | to fear | 175 | qwettah | white |
038 | zjeser | person | 107 | sjiqu | to sleep | 176 | zaruqo | black |
039 | aqeh | child | 108 | vizji | to live | 177 | liut | night |
040 | nizjan | wife | 109 | gravizi | to die | 178 | nadjad | day |
041 | djuttah | husband | 110 | mahlizi | to kill | 179 | sjeimaq | year |
042 | mahkov | mother | 111 | sjehni | to fight | 180 | dulam | hot (weather) |
043 | sehkov | father | 112 | hnuqatu | to hunt | 181 | djirasj | cold |
044 | param | animal | 113 | maqa | to hit | 182 | timla | full |
045 | mahkis | fish | 114 | trangi | to cut | 183 | lazjis | new |
046 | parunkwe | bird | 115 | saluqa | to split | 184 | djornah | old |
047 | qwot | dog | 116 | pasjiti | to stab, to pierce | 185 | kezj | good |
048 | pitj | louse | 117 | sjahe | to scratch | 186 | qahasj | bad |
049 | sjeq | snake | 118 | berepa | to dig | 187 | sjirrah | rotten |
050 | tahni | worm | 119 | qrufu | to swim | 188 | piruh | dirty |
051 | kweru | tree | 120 | onahlu | to fly | 189 | mohna | straight |
052 | sjenkur | forest, woods | 121 | tuqae | to walk | 190 | bunda | round |
053 | kwemqe | stick | 122 | djaya | come | 191 | kitj | sharp |
054 | nazu | fruit | 123 | meiku | to lie (down) | 192 | vohom | dull |
055 | gitjo | seed | 124 | gurae | to sit | 193 | sjasj | smooth |
056 | djendra | leaf | 125 | ponao | to stand | 194 | ravaoq | wet |
057 | ravu | root | 126 | zjohma | to turn | 195 | zjuhre | dry |
058 | kwop | bark (of tree) | 127 | pozja | to fall | 196 | trizja | correct, right |
059 | fenav | flower | 128 | basri | to give | 197 | traqo | near |
060 | dahno | grass | 129 | nokwa | to hold | 198 | gim | far |
061 | qulug | rope | 130 | pisu | to squeeze | 199 | getjilo | right (hand) |
062 | tjurri | skin | 131 | hmonno | to rub | 200 | saliusj | left (hand) |
063 | nandju | flesh, meat | 132 | gango | to wash | 201 | ke | at |
064 | nahul | blood | 133 | reina | to wipe | 202 | ur | in |
065 | esjit | bone | 134 | prehna | to pull | 203 | dum | with |
066 | savri | grease, fat | 135 | ligo | to push | 204 | si | and |
067 | unku | egg | 136 | sjuhtu | to throw | 205 | hu | if |
068 | sjulpe | horn | 137 | zjego | to tie, bind | 206 | vaqei | because |
069 | tjugwen | tail | 138 | djemei | to sew | 207 | lazj | name |
- ↑ The vocative only exists officially for animate nouns, since most people are not in the habit of directly addressing inanimate objects. (In some cases where poetic license is necessary, the animate endings may be applied to an inanimate.)
- ↑ The term fourth person can mean many different things, linguistically speaking, depending on the language in question, and is usually avoided because of any confusion that may arise therefrom. In this text I present it as a simple alternative to describing the inanimate pronouns; persons 1‒3 are actual “persons,” while the fourth person here is not. It is equally valid to describe the “third person inanimate” in contrast to the “third person animate,” but that frankly just takes up a lot room in an otherwise concise chart.
- ↑ The term fourth person can mean many different things, linguistically speaking, depending on the language in question, and is usually avoided because of any confusion that may arise therefrom. In this text I present it as a simple alternative to describing the inanimate pronouns; persons 1‒3 are actual “persons,” while the fourth person here is not. It is equally valid to describe the “third person inanimate” in contrast to the “third person animate,” but that frankly just takes up a lot room in an otherwise concise chart.