Ox-Yew

Adzaay (or Adɮāλ) is an a priori, possibly non-terrestrial language whose phonology, morphology, grammar, and really whose entire weltanschauung is inextricably tied to sets of three. Their number system is nonal (3×3); there are three vowels; there are three of each type of consonant; there are three noun classes (or “genders,” but that word really isn’t useful here); there are even three finite grammatical moods.

Since [ɑdˈɮɑːtɬʼ] doesn't really roll off the tongue of the average native speaker of most European languages, the alternative name “Ox-Yew” (or the Language of the Ox-Yew People) is derived from a mistranslation of what early researchers believed the people to be called; in reality, the people of a nearby village who directed them where to find the main Ox-Yew village had said something more along the lines of: “Why would you want to go there? It's just cows and trees.”

Phonology

Vowels

Short: /i a u/

Diphthongs: /ia̯ iu̯ ai̯ au̯ ui̯ ua̯/

Long: /ī ā ū/

Long Diphthongs: /īa̯ īu̯ āi̯ āu̯ ūi̯ ūa̯/

Diphthongs are always falling, but if a diphthong starting with /i/ or /u/ appears at the beginning of a word (i.e. with no onset), it is realized as a glide ([j] or [w], respectively).

Because of the limited range of vowels, a vowel chart is almost wasted for Adzaay, but here you go:

	Fronty	Middlin’	Backish
High:	⟨i⟩ /i/ ⟨ii⟩ /iː/		⟨u⟩ /u/ ⟨uu⟩ /uː/
Mid:
Low:		⟨a⟩ /a/ ⟨aa⟩ /aː/

The diphthongs do not vary other than by length:

Stress

Stress is moraic with a dactylic substructure. Stress falls on longest left-most syllable. Where morae are equal, long vowels have a higher priority than diphthongs, which have a higher priority than final consonants. There are eight possible syllable weights:

	Morae	Priority	Description	Examples
V	1	8	Short vowel, no coda.	bu, na, ki
VC	2	7	Short vowel, monomoraic coda.	uk, it, an
VV̯	2	6	Diphthong, no coda.	hau, niu, mai
Vː	2	5	Long vowel, no coda.	lii, kuu, aa
VV̯C	3	4	Diphthong, monomoraic coda.	kais, zaud, bzuim
VːC	3	3	Long vowel, monomoraic coda.	aat, kiic, dzuuq
VːV̯	3	2	Long diphthong, no coda.	giiu, maai, vuua
VːV̯C	4	1	Long diphthong, monomoraic coda.	fuuav, saaik, viiut

Non-stressed syllables are reduced. (See Phonotactics).

Consonants

	Fronty	Middlin’	Backish
Unvoiced Stop:	⟨p⟩ /p/	⟨t⟩ /t/	⟨k⟩ /k/
Voiced Stop:	⟨b⟩ /b/	⟨d⟩ /d/	⟨g⟩ /ɡ/
Fricative:	⟨s⟩ /s/	⟨f⟩ /ʃ/	⟨h⟩ /x/
Homorganic Affricate:	⟨c⟩ /t͡s/	⟨q⟩ /t͡ʃ/	⟨j⟩ /d͡ʒ/
Heterorganic Affricate:	⟨w⟩ /d͡v/	⟨y⟩ /t͡ɬ/	⟨x⟩ /t͡x/
Liquid:	⟨z⟩ /ɮ/	⟨r⟩ /r/	⟨l⟩ /l/
Nasal:	⟨m⟩ /m/	⟨n⟩ /n/	⟨v⟩ /ŋ/

Phonotactics

Syllable Structure

CLVC

• All syllables must have a nucleus, but onsets and codas are not required. Syllables in the same word must have either a coda or an onset dividing them (i.e. two syllable nuclei must be separated by at least one consonant.)
• Word-initial onsets may consist of a single consonant, or an oral or nasal stop consonant followed by a liquid.
  • ⟨p, t, k, b, d, g, c, q, j, w, y, x, m, n, v, l, z, r, s, f, h⟩
  • ⟨pr, tr, kr, br, dr, gr, pl, tl, kl, bl, dl, gl, pz, tz, kz, bz, dz, gz⟩
  • ⟨mr, nr, vr, ml, nl, vl, mz, nz, vz⟩
• In words with no consonantal onset beginning with a short diphthong, the diphthong switches from falling to rising; that is, the initial element of the diphthong is realized as a glide. (This does not apply to ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩.)
  • ⟨iu, ia, ui, ua⟩ → [ju, ja, wi, wa] / #_
• In words with no consonantal onset beginning with a long diphthong, the long element of the diphthong is subject to fracture. (This does not apply to ⟨aai⟩ and ⟨aau⟩.)
  • ⟨iiu, iia, uui, uua⟩ → [jiu, jia, wui, wua]
  • In some dialects this may even cause the “length” to shift to the second element: ⟨iiu, iia, uui, uua⟩ → [juː, jaː, wiː, waː]
• Intersyllabic consonant clusters may be:
  • C (any single consonant)
    • ⟨p, t, k, b, d, g, q, j, c, m, n, v, l, z, r, s, f, h⟩
  • C[-cnt]C[+liq] (any stop + liquid)
    • ⟨pr, pl, pz, tr, tl, tz, kr, kl, kz, br, bl, bz, dr, dl, dz, gr, gl, gz⟩
  • C[-cnt]ː (any geminate stop)
    • ⟨pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg⟩
  • C[+nas]ː (any geminate nasal)
    • ⟨mm, nn, vv⟩
  • C[+nas]C[-cnt-vox] (any nasal + unvoiced stop of the same place of articulation; also ⟨vg⟩)
    • ⟨mp, nt, vk, vg⟩
  • C[+nas]C[+liq] (any nasal + liquid)
    • ⟨mr, ml, mz, nr, nl, nz, vr, vl, vz⟩
  • C[+nas]C[-cnt-vox]C[+liq] (any nasal + voiced or unvoiced stop of the same place of articulation + liquid)
    • ⟨mbr, mbl, mbz, ndr, ndl, ndz, vgr, vgl, vgz⟩
  • nC[+liq] (⟨n⟩ + any affricate)
    • ⟨nq, nj, nc⟩
  • C[+obs+cnt]C[-cnt-vox] (any fricative + any unvoiced stop)
    • ⟨sp, st, sk, fp, ft, fk, hp, ht, hk⟩
• Word-final codas may consist only of a single consonant or a geminate stop.
  • ⟨p, t, k, b, d, g, c, q, j, w, y, x, m, n, v, l, z, r, s, f, h⟩
  • Single stop consonants become spirantised in coda position.
    • ⟨p, t, k, b, d, g⟩ → [ɸ, θ, x, β, ð, ɣ] / _#
  • Geminate stop consonants become non-geminate in coda position.
    • ⟨pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg⟩ → [p, t, k, b, d, ɡ] / _#
  • Unvoiced affricates have an ejective release in coda position; voiced affricates have a lengthened release.
    • ⟨c, q, j, w, y, x⟩ → [t͡sʼ, t͡ʃʼ, d͡ʒː, d͡vː, t͡ɬʼ, t͡xʼ] / _#

Liquid Dissimilation

• When two identical liquids occur in the same or adjacent syllables, the right-most liquid changes: l → r → z → l, e.g.:
  • bzaukzi → bzaukli
  • graar → graaz
  • brulaaul → brulaaur
• In words where three liquids appear, all liquids are dissimilated even if a different liquid separates two of the same. This may cause chain shifting in compound words until the order described above can be observed, e.g.:
  • bratluir → bratluiz
  • raagraz → raagzaz → raagzal
  • dravglal → dravglar (but regularization does not wrap, so here, two /r/s are acceptable.)

Vowel Reduction in Syllables with Non-Primary Stress

• Vowels with secondary stress are reduced by their right-most mora. Secondary stress is almost always separated primary stress by two unstressed syllables.

ia iu ii	→ i	ai au aa	→ a	ui ua uu	→ u
iia iiu	→ ii	aai aau	→ aa	uui uua	→ uu

1. • E.g. ááidlaavaicùùap → aaidlavacuup

• Unstressed vowels are reduced to their left-most mora:

ia iu ii iia iiu

→ i

ai au aa aai aau

→ a

ui ua uu uui uua

→ u

Cluster Reduction between Syllables with Non-Primary Stress

The number of consonant clusters which can occur intervocalically between syllables with non-primary stress is dramatically reduced. Somehow. Probably. I think. Also, stress is primarily dactylic, somehow, probably, I think.

Orthography

Adzaay has three distinct orthographies. There is a native writing system (patent pending...); a “presentational” orthography, which uses some diacritics and some non-standard characters to present the language a little more compactly and with a few slightly more intuitive graphemes; and a “utility” orthography, which uses 24 letters of the standard 26-letter Latin alphabet. (The letters O and E are not used.)

Function	Form	IPA	Series
⟨p⟩⟩		p	stop, unvoiced
⟨t⟩⟩		t	stop, unvoiced
⟨k⟩⟩		k	stop, unvoiced
⟨b⟩⟩		b	stop, voiced
⟨d⟩⟩		d	stop, voiced
⟨g⟩⟩		g	stop, voiced
⟨s⟩⟩		s	fricative
⟨f⟩	⟨⟨š⟩⟩	ʃ	fricative
⟨h⟩⟩		x	fricative
⟨c⟩⟩		t͡s	affricate, homorganic
⟨q⟩	⟨⟨č⟩⟩	t͡ʃ	affricate, homorganic
⟨j⟩⟩		d͡ʒ	affricate, homorganic
⟨w⟩	⟨⟨ȸ⟩⟩	d͡v	affricate, heterorganic
⟨y⟩	⟨⟨λ⟩⟩	t͡ɬ	affricate, heterorganic
⟨x⟩	⟨⟨ӿ⟩⟩	t͡x	affricate, heterorganic
⟨m⟩⟩		m	nasal
⟨n⟩⟩		n	nasal
⟨v⟩	⟨⟨ŋ⟩⟩	ŋ	nasal
⟨z⟩	⟨⟨ɮ⟩⟩	ɮ	liquid
⟨r⟩⟩		r	liquid
⟨l⟩⟩		l	liquid
⟨i⟩⟩		i	vowel, short
⟨ii⟩	⟨⟨ī⟩⟩	iː	vowel, long
⟨ia⟩⟩		ia̯	diphthong, short
⟨iu⟩⟩		iu̯	diphthong, short
⟨iia⟩	⟨⟨īa⟩⟩	iːa̯	diphthong, long
⟨iiu⟩	⟨⟨īu⟩⟩	iːu̯	diphthong, long
⟨a⟩⟩		a	vowel, short
⟨ai⟩⟩		ai̯	diphthong, short
⟨aa⟩	⟨⟨ā⟩⟩	aː	vowel, long
⟨au⟩⟩		au̯	diphthong, short
⟨aai⟩	⟨⟨āi⟩⟩	aːi̯	diphthong, long
⟨aau⟩	⟨⟨āu⟩⟩	aːu̯	diphthong, long
⟨u⟩⟩		u	vowel, short
⟨ui⟩⟩		ui̯	diphthong, short
⟨ua⟩⟩		ua̯	diphthong, short
⟨uu⟩	⟨⟨ū⟩⟩	uː	vowel, long
⟨uui⟩	⟨⟨ūi⟩⟩	uːi̯	diphthong, long
⟨uua⟩	⟨⟨ūa⟩⟩	uːa̯	diphthong, long

Morphology

Numbers

The number system of Ox-Yew is nonal (base 9) which developed from an earlier ternary (or trinary) system.

lif	0	“Teens”	Non	Dec	“Tens”	Non	Dec	“Hundreds”	Non	Dec	&c	Non	Dec	Exp
kai	1	traz	11	10	ya	10	9	lip	100	81	qu	3	3	3¹
tra	2	yatra	12	11	tray	20	18	tralip	200	162	ya	10	9	3²
qu	3	qucih	13	12	quuam	30	27	duual	300	243	quuam	30	27	3³
ci	4	yaci	14	13	ciy	40	36	cilip	400	324	lip	100	81	3⁴
wau	5	yawau	15	14	wauy	50	45	waulip	500	405	duual	300	243	3⁵
faa	6	yafaa	16	15	faay	60	54	faalip	600	486	fak	1,000	729	3⁶
nui	7	yanui	17	16	nuiy	70	63	nuilip	700	567	fakuuam	3,000	2,187	3⁷
aax	8	yaax	18	17	aaxa	80	72	aaxip	800	648	yalip	10,000	6,561	3⁸
ya	10 (9)	tray	20	18	lip	100	81	fak	1,000	729	quuamblip	30,000	19,683	3⁹

Nouns

Everything below this sentence is a lie.

Cases

Adzaay has several cases which regulate the roles various words play in a sentence.

Absolutive

The absolutive case is used for the subjects of intransitive verbs.

Ergative

Ergative is used with the subjects of transitive verbs when there is a direct object present.

Accusative

Accusative indicates a direct object.

Dative

The use of the dative in Adzaay is slightly more restrictive than it may be in other languages. It specifically invokes the meaning of ‘to’ or ‘towards’.

Ablative

Many languages have an “ablative” case, though it rarely means the same thing from one language to another. In Adzaay, the ablative is the exact inverse of the dative, invoking the meaning of ‘out of’ or ‘from’.

Genitive

The genitive deals with possession and relation. There is a bit of overlap with the ablative.

Oblique

The oblique isn't so much a case as an anti-case: This is the “Dictionary Form” of Adzaay nouns, and is not inflected at all. It is mainly used with adpositions, or for mentioning things in a list.

Classes

There are only three noun classes in Adzaay, so one might be tempted to call them “genders,” but that term really doesn't work well here, considering that all of the human genders which usually serve as examples of the various grammatical genders all fall into a single noun class. Adzaay nouns are divided into Animate, Inanimate, and Abstract classes.

Animate

Animate nouns are quite literally comprised of things which are alive. This includes, but is not limited to men, women, children, dogs, cows, grass, trees, moss, cauliflower, and caterpillars. Some dynamic nouns may be considered animate even if they are not alive in the traditional sense, such as fire, running water, wind, or weather.

Inanimate

Inanimate nouns are things which are not alive. They may be things which are no longer alive (such as wood or leather) or things which do not presently show signs of life, but which may become alive in the future (like seeds or eggs). Some inanimate nouns include wood, stone, metal, houses, rice, books, salt, and soil.

*Note to self: What about body parts and plant parts, like heart, arm, brain, trunk, and leaf?

Abstract

Abstract nouns are concepts, ideas, or non-substantives, like feelings, concepts, and symbolic thought. These include compassion, love, anger, war, kerfuffle, hope, tarnation, thought, and stubbornness.

Verbs

Don't delete my stuff just because I'm lazy and haven't filled it out yet, you jerk!

Syntax

Alignments

Typology

The typology of Adzaay is predominantly SOV or verb-final. Marked order is OSV. A morphological particle is inserted between the subject and the direct object which is ostensibly a case suffix combined with a case prefix; a different particle is used in marked order.

Morphosyntactic Alignment

Adzaay alignment is tripartite, so nouns and pronouns are differentiated for subject, object, and agentive roles by use of case affixes and/or particles.

Headedness

Adzaay is predominantly head-final, and this is reflected in many of its more granular alignments.

Noun Phrases

A typical noun phrase is structured in the following order:

1. —NOUN—
2. Adposition
3. Determiner
4. Numeral
5. Adjective (Phrase)
6. Genitive (Phrase)
7. Relative Clause

Adjective Phrases

In adjective phrases, (adverbial) measurements of degree (very, less, too, &c.) follow the adjective.

1. —ADJECTIVE—
2. Degree Adverb (Phrase)

Verb Phrases

As mentioned in Typology, Adzaay is a verb-final language, and as such, adverbs always immediately precede the verb. Verbs inflect for person, number, polarity, voice, mood, tense, and aspect.

Vocabulary

Key vocabulary can be found here.

Useful Phrases

Gratitude

• Gziiunim. Thank you.